Chapter 1
Greek in a Nutshell,
An Outline of
GREEK GRAMMAR
with
BRIEF READING LESSONS;
Designed for Beginners in the New Testament.
BY
JAMES STRONG, S.T.D., Professor of Exegetical Theology in Drew Theological Seminary
NEW YORK: EATON & MAINS CINCINNATI: JENNINGS & GRAHAM
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by NELSON & PHILLIPS, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.
PREFACE.
This little Manual was originally prepared for the NORMAL CLASS, at the request of the editor of that Journal, and was at the same time expected to form an instruction book at the Sunday-School Assembly annually held at Chautauqua. This accounts for its form in twelve series of two pages each. The reading lessons, however, have been made sufficiently full for subsequent study. Of course the simplest elements only of the Greek language can be comprised in such narrow limits; nor can a full vocabulary or ready facility be acquired in so short a course. Nevertheless, a good beginning may be made, and that is "half the battle" in any enterprise. It is believed that a thorough mastery of this small volume will prove a conquest over all the real difficulties of the original tongue of the New Testament.
J. S.
LESSON I.
READING
§ 1. THE ALPHABET.
Form. Name. Sound. A α Al'pha _a_ in _man_, [_arm._[1]] Β β Be'ta _b_ Γ γ Gam'ma _g_ in _go_, [_king._[2]] Δ δ Del'ta _d_ Ε ε Ep'silon _e_ in _met_. Ζ ζ Ze'ta _dz_ in _adze_. Η η E'ta _e_ in _they_. Θ ϑ or θ The'ta _th_ in _thin_. Ι ι Io'ta _i_ in _tin_, [_machine_[3]] Κ κ or ϗ Kap'pa _k_ Λ λ Lamb'da _l_ Μ μ Mu _m_ Ν ν Nu _n_ Ξ ξ Xi _x_ Ο ο Om'icron _ο_ in _not_. Π π Pi _p_ Ρ ρ Rho _r_ Σ σ, final ς Sig'ma _s_ in _this_. Τ τ Tau _t_ in _it_. Υ υ U'psilon _u_ in _full_. Φ φ Phi _f_ χ χ Khi _kh_ (German _ch_.) ψ ψ Psi _ps_ Ω ω O'mega _ο_ in _no_.
§ 2. Notes on the Alphabet.
1. α sounds broad, like _a_ in _arm_, at the end of a word, and before ρ final or ρ followed by a different consonant.
2. γ has the nasal sound, like _ng_ in _king_, before γ, κ, χ, or ξ.
3. ι has its long sound, like _i_ in _machine_, at the end of a syllable.
Every letter is sounded, and, with the above exceptions, invariably the same.
2. ACCENT.
§ 3. Each word, except a very few monosyllables, has one of the following accents written over a vowel in it, which marks the place of the spoken tone. A few small words, called _enclitics_, generally throw their accent, as an acute, on the last syllable of the preceding word.
§ 4. The _acute_ ('), which is the foundation of all the accents, stands on one of the last three syllables. In verbs, with the exception of certain forms, it stands as far toward the beginning of the word as the rules below allow. In other parts of speech it stands on the same syllable as in the ground-form, (that given in the lexicon,) except as required by these rules. When the last syllable has a long vowel or diphthong it stands on the syllable before the last.
§ 5. The _grave_ accent (`) is only written in place of the acute on the last syllable when not before a pause, or when unemphatic. It is understood to belong to all other syllables.
§ 6. The _circumflex_ (~) is placed on a syllable formed by the combination of two, the first of which had an acute and the second a grave; hence only on the last, or next to the last syllable, and only on a long vowel or a diphthong. When the last syllable has a short vowel, such a penult, if accented, takes the circumflex.
3. BREATHINGS, VOWELS, DIPHTHONGS, ETC.
§ 7. A vowel beginning a word takes either the _rough breathing_, (῾), which is pronounced like _h_, or else, to show the absence of that, _the smooth breathing_, (᾿), which has no appreciable sound. Initial ρ and υ always take the rough breathing; and double ρ in the middle of a word takes the smooth breathing on the first, and the rough on the second.
§ 8. The vowels are short, (ε and ο,) long, (η and ω,) or doubtful, (α, ι, and υ,) which last, although naturally short, are sometimes lengthened by derivation.
§ 9. The diphthongs are as follows:--
Proper. With Iota Subscript. Improper. αι sounds ay ᾳ = α ηυ = η and υ ει " i ῃ = η ωυ = ω and υ οι " oy ῳ = ω υι " we αυ " ow ευ " yu ου " oo
§ 10. In diphthongs the breathing and accent are written over the _second_ vowel. A capital (initial) letter in other cases takes them _before_ it.
§ 11. The punctuation marks are the comma, (,), the semicolon, (·), the period, (.), and the interrogation point, (;).
LESSON II.
EUPHONIC CHANGES.
§ 12. When two _consonants_ come together the first is made homogeneous with the second, as follows:--
§ 13. Mutes of a different class must have the same degree of hardness according to the following classification:--
Smooth. Middle. Rough. Sibilant (with _s_.) Kappa-mutes. κ γ χ ξ Pi-mutes π β φ ψ Tau-mutes τ δ ϑ ζ
§ 14. A _smooth_ final mute is roughened before a vowel with the rough breathing. A rough mute is not doubled, nor can successive syllables begin with an aspirate. A tau-mute is sometimes dropped before σ, and always before κ; before a different tau-mute it is changed into σ.
§ 15. Before μ a kappa-mute is changed into γ, a pi-mute into μ, and a tau-mute into σ.
§ 16. ν before a kappa-mute becomes γ, before a pi-mute μ, before a liquid (λ, μ, ν, or ρ) it is changed into the same liquid, before σ or ζ it is dropped.
§ 17. ν is appended to certain endings in σι or ε before a pause or a vowel.
§ 18. There are several other less important rules, and some exceptions to most of the above.
§ 19. A _long vowel_ or _diphthong_ is used as an equivalent for two (usually short) vowels in immediate succession, or as a compensation for the omission of a consonant, sometimes for both.
§ 20. The changes in the union of two vowels are various, depending upon their comparative strength, position, and relation to the long vowels, or diphthongs respectively. They are readily learned by practice.
§ 21. Compensation is not always thus made for the omission of a consonant. Sometimes the omission occurs too far back in the derivation to be easily traced.
§ 22. A final vowel is sometimes elided before another vowel, and its place indicated by the apostrophe, (').
§ 23. There are several _dialects_, which chiefly affect the vowels, (like provincial pronunciation;) but in later Greek (to which the New Testament belongs) they were merged in "the common dialect," the Attic pre-dominating.
NOUNS.
Nouns are of three declensions, three genders, three numbers, and five cases, all indicated by changes of termination.
§ 24. The declensions (numbered 1, 2, and 3) are only different modes of inflection.
§ 25. Names and designations of males, nations, the months, rivers, and winds, are almost invariably _masculine_; those of females, countries, islands, cities, trees, and plants, are usually _feminine_; of the _neuter_ gender are most names of fruits and diminutives, and always the names of the letters, infinitives, clauses, indeclinable words, and words used as the symbol of a sound. In the third declension especially the (grammatical) gender in many instances is arbitrary.
§ 26. The _singular_ and _plural_ are used as in English. The _dual_ denotes two or a pair; it is comparatively rare, and never occurs in the New Testament.
§ 27. The _cases_ express the relations of words to each other in a sentence, as follows:--
Name. Use. Equivalent. Nominative. Subject of a finite verb. (Simple form.) Genitive. Origin or ownership. _From, of,_ etc. Dative. Position or manner. _In, by, for, to,_ etc. Accusative. Direction or object. _Toward, into,_ etc. Vocative. Address. _O!_
§ 28. The following are the terminations of the _First Declension_:--
Singular. Cases. Plural. _Masc._ _Fem._ _Masc. and Fem._ ας or ης α or η Nominative. αι ον ας or ης Genitive. ῶν ᾳ or η Dative. αις αν or ην Accusative. ας α or η Vocative. αι
_Dual._ Nom., Acc., Voc., α; Gen., Dat., αιν.
§ 29. The α in the terminations of the singular is mostly used when ρ, ε,or ι precedes it; and in the Nom., Acc., and Voc. when λ or σ, and frequently when ν, precedes it. A few nouns have α in the Gen. sing.
LESSON III.
NOUNS--Continued.
§ 30. The following are the terminations of the _Second Declension_:--
Singular. Cases. Plural. _Masc._ _Neut._ _Masc._ _Neut._ ος ον Nominative. οι α ου Genitive. ων ῳ Dative. οις ον Accusative. ους α ε ον Vocative. οι α
_Dual._ Nom., Acc., Voc., ω; Gen., Dat., οιν.
§ 31. The few fem. nouns of this declension take the masc. terminations. The Voc. masc. sing. is occasionally ος.
§ 32. The following are the terminations of the _Third Declension_:--
Singular. Cases. Plural. _Masc. and Fem._ _Neut._ _Masc. and Fem._ _Neut._ ς (or long vowel (naked stem.) Nominative. ες α before final letter.) ος Genitive. ων ι Dative. σι(ν) ν or α (naked stem.) Accusative. ας α (like Nom. or Neut.) (naked stem.) Vocative. ες α
_Dual._ Nom., Acc., Voc., ε; Gen., Dat., οιν.
§ 33. The Nom. sing. is so often changed by the euphonic rules that the stem of the noun is best seen in the Gen. Nouns in ις, υς, and ευς take the (Attic) Gen. εως, (ω regarded as _short_.) The α of the Acc. sing. is usually after a consonant. Many irregularities and some anomalies occur, which may generally be learned from the lexicon.
ADJECTIVES.
§ 34. These are _declined_ like nouns, having sometimes three sets of terminations for the respective genders, sometimes two, (masc. and fem. alike,) rarely but one, (all genders alike.) The masc. and neut. are always of the same declension, (second or third,) and the fem., when different, always of the first. _Participles_ are declined like adjectives.
§ 35. Adjectives are _compared_ either by using an adverb expressive of degree, or, more regularly, by adding to the stem of the positive the syllables ότερος or ίων for the comparative, and ότατος or ιστος for the superlative. Some euphonic changes occur in making these additions, which then take the regular declensional endings.
NUMERALS.
§ 36. The _cardinal_ numbers are either simple, (the units, tens, and a few others,) or compound, (intermediate numbers.) Those from one to four inclusive, and the hundreds and thousands, are declined like adjectives. They may all be learned from the lexicon.
§ 37. The _ordinals_ are mostly formed from the cardinals by adjective endings.
PRONOUNS.
§ 38. Of the _personal_ pronouns, those of the 1st and 2d persons only are specially noteworthy, being declined as nouns irregularly:--
_I_ or _Me_. _We_ or _Us_. _Thou_ or _Thee_. _Ye_ or _You_. Nominative. ἐγώ ἡμεῖς σύ ὑμεῖς Genitive. (ἐ)μοῦ ἡμῶν σοῦ ὑμῶν Dative. (ἐ)μοί ἡμῖν σοί ὑμῖν Accusative. (ἐ)μέ ἡμᾶς σέ ὑμᾶς
§ 39. The rest are declined as adjectives--masc. ος, fem, η, neut. ο; often compounded, one or both parts being declined; but, with the exception of τις, (interrogative τίς, indefinite τὶς,) neut. τι, Gen. τινος, of the third declension, the _article_ (definite only) and the _demonstrative_ alone are very peculiar in declension, as follows:--
Singular. The. Plural. _Masc. Neut. Fem._ _Masc. Neut. Fem._ ὁ τό ἡ Nominative. οἱ τά αἱ τοῦ τῆς Genitive. τῶν τῶν τῷ τῇ Dative. τοῖς ταῖς τόν τό τήν Accusative. -ούς τά τάς
_Dual._ Nom., Acc., Voc., τώ, τά; Gen., Dat., τοῖν, ταῖν.
Singular. This, These. Plural. _Masc. Neut. Fem._ _Masc. Neut. Fem._ οὗτος τοῦτο αὕτη Nominative. οὗτοι ταῦτα αὗται τούτου ταύτης Genitive. τούτων τούτων τούτῳ -αύτῃ Dative. τούτοις ταύταις τουτου τοῦτο ταυτην Accusative. τούτους ταῦτα ταύτας
_Dual._ Nom., Acc., Voc., τούτω, ταῦτα; Gen., Dat., τούτοιν, ταύταιν
LESSON IV.
VERBS.
§ 40. There are three VOICES, _Active, Middle,_ and _Passive,_ generally distinguished by the _termination_.
The Middle is properly _reflexive_. Some of its tenses have an _active_ meaning. A few verbs, called _deponent_, are throughout pass. in form, but act. or mid. in meaning.
§ 41. There are five MOODS in each voice, the _Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive, Optative,_ and _Infinitive_, to which may be added the _Participles_; they are mostly known by means of the _union-vowel_--that which immediately precedes the termination.
§ 42. The Indic., Imper., Infin., and Participles correspond to the English, and have a _short_ union-vowel, (ε, ο, or α,) except the Perf. and Pluperf. pass., which have no union-vowel; the Pluperf. act. and mid., which have ει; and the Aorists pass., which have η or its equivalent.
§ 43. The Imper. has but two persons. 2d and 3d. The Infin. has but one termination for all numbers and persons, and is very often used as a neut. noun, with the article, etc., yet retaining its construction as a verb.
§ 44. The Subj. and Opt. are used in certain _dependent_ relations, like the English subjunctive and potential; the former has a _long_ union-vowel, (η or ω,) and the latter a diphthong, (οι, αι, or ει.) The former generally represents an act as contingent upon outward circumstances, and the latter upon a will.
§ 45. The TENSES are nine, the _Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect,_ two _Aorists_, (1st and 2d, equivalent in sense,) and three _Futures_, (1st and 2d, equivalent to each other, and 3d, very rarely used;) they are distinguished by certain letters prefixed, inserted, or added to the stem or root of the verb. They represent time as compared with the _present_, and never date from that of a preceding verb.
§ 46. The Pres., Perf., Pluperf., and Fut. answer very nearly to the same tenses in English.
§ 47. The Imperf. denotes an act as going on, but incomplete or habitual at some time past: "was doing," etc.
§ 48. The Aorists indicate a single act at a definite time, (past in the Indic., but undetermined in the others moods.)
§ 49. All the tenses with respect to form may be classed thus:--
I. _Primary_, or Absolute. Present. Perfect. Futures.
II. _Secondary_, or Historical. Imperfect. Pluperfect. Aorists.
These classes usually have the following endings respectively:--
Active Form. Persons. Middle and Passive. I. II. I. II. Pres. and Fut. Perf. Opt. Sing. ο - ν μι 1st μαι μην ις ς 2d σαι (σ)ο ι - 3d ται το Plur. μεν 1st μεϑα τε 2d σϑε (ντ) σι (ν) (σα)ν 3d νται ντο [2d, τον, 3d, την. Dual. 1st, μεϑον, 2d, σϑον, 3d, σϑην.]
_Notes on the Table of Verb Endings._
§ 50. In the Pres. and Fut. the ο of the 1st sing. act. is contracted (with the union-vowel) into ω, and the σαι of the 2d sing. pass. into ῃ or ει.
§ 51. Signification limits the primary terminations to the Indic. and Subj., and the secondary to the Indic. and Opt.: likewise the Imperf. and Pluperf. to the Indic., and the Imper. to the Pres., the Aorists and (rarely) the Perf.
§ 52. The _active_ terminations are assumed throughout by the Perf. and Pluperf. mid., and the Aorists pass.
§ 53. The terminations of the Imper. are analogous to the secondary in the act., and in the mid. and pass. they are merely the same strengthened, thus: _Sing._ 2d,--[Aor. pass, ϑι, 1st Aor. act. (σ)ov] (pass. ο [1st Aor. mid. ι] or σο); 3d, τω (pass. σϑω,) _Plur._ 2d, τε (pass. σϑε); 3d, τωσαν [or contr. ντων] (pass, σϑωσαν. [_Dual._ 2d, τον (σϑον); 3d, των (σϑων,)]
§ 54. The Infin. in the act. forms ends in εν, [contr., with union-vowel into ειν] (Pres., Fut., and 2d Aor.,) αι, (1st Aor.,) or ναι, (Perf. act. and mid. and both Aor. pass.;) elsewhere in σϑαι.
§ 55. In the Participles the stem ends in ντ in the act. forms, (except the Perf. act. and mid., which have ότ;) the rest take μεν, (Perf. pass, μέν.) These latter are [masc. and neut.] of the second declension, the others of the third.
§ 56. Verbs in μι insert σ before the final ι of the 3d pers. sing. Pres. Indic. act., and vary in a few other terminations, chiefly by contraction.
LESSON V.
VERBS--Continued.
§ 57. The root of every _primitive_ verb is a monosyllable, consisting of a short vowel (α, ε, ι, ο, or υ) between two (usually simple) consonants. Sometimes one or the other of the latter has been dropped far back in the etymology. This root is most readily found in the 1st Fut., subject only to euphonic changes. The 2d Aor. always has a monosyllabic root, with a single vowel never long; but this may be somewhat different from the true root. Primitive verbs only have a 2d Aor.
§ 58. The Pres. and Imperf. commonly _strengthen_ the root, either by adding a hard consonant, (sometimes more than one,) or (oftener) by changing the root vowel into the corresponding long one or diphthong.
§ 59. The following tenses add certain _characteristic_ letters to the root:--
1st Fut. and 1st Aor. act. and mid., (of verbs not liquid,) and 3d Fut. ο 1st Aor. pass. ϑ 1st Fut. pass. ϑησ 2d Fut. pass. ηο 2d (in liquid verbs 1st) Fut. act. and mid. ε Perf. and Pluperf. Act. of pure and liquid verbs κ Perf. and pluperf. act. ending in a pi- or kappa-mute (῾)
§ 60. Tenses expressing _past time_ (Imperf. and Aorists Indic.) prefix ε ("syllabic _augment") to the root; this coalesces with an initial vowel ("temporal augment") into the corresponding long vowel or diphthong. The Perf., Pluperf., and 3d Fut. not only do the same throughout the moods, but also prefix to the _syllabic_ augment the initial consonant of the root ("reduplication") when this is a simple consonant or a mute followed by a liquid. The Pluperf. prefixes a second syllabic augment to the reduplication.
§ 61. Initial ρ, (which is doubled after the syllabic augment,) βλ, γλ, and γν, do not, except in a few cases, allow the reduplication. Verbs compounded with a preposition generally take the augment, etc., between it and the primitive. A few other irregularities occur.
§ 62. Verbs are classified in conjugation according to the radical letter following the root vowel, or diphthong, in the 1st pers. sing. Pres. Indic. act., lexicon form: in "liquid" verbs (not derivatives in άνω, which is merely strengthened for άω) this is a _liquid_; in "pure" verbs it is absent, so that the root appears to end in a vowel, etc. Very many verbs seem to be anomalous in some of their forms in consequence of deriving these from an obsolete kindred root. The lexicon gives most of these peculiarities.
§ 63. _Liquid_ verbs almost always strengthen their root in the Pres. and Imperf.; they lengthen it in the 1st Aor. act. and mid. by changing the root vowel, if α into η, if ε into ει, while ι and ν merely become long. ε as a root vowel is generally changed into α in the 1st Aor. and 1st Fut. pass., the Perf. and Pluperf. act. and pass., and the 2d Aor. and 2d Fut. throughout, and again into ο in the Perf. and Pluperf. mid.
§ 64. The above strengthening in the Pres. and Imperf. consists in doubling λ, annexing ν to μ; or, in case of ν or ρ, in adding ι to a preceding α or ε, or lengthening ι or υ. The radical ν is often dropped in Perf. and Pluperf.
§ 65. Verbs with ε followed by a pi- or kappa-mute in the root frequently neglect to strengthen it in the Pres. and Imperf.; and verbs with ε in the root preceded by a liquid, usually change it into α and ο in the same tenses as liquid verbs, except in the 1st Aor. and Fut. pass.
§ 66. _Pure_ verbs lengthen the root vowel before a tense characteristic, also in the Perf. and Pluperf. pass. A few occasionally neglect this, and some insert σ instead.
§ 67. Verbs in μι (lexicon form instead of ω) are but another mode of conjugating pure verbs (being the only primitives of that class whose root ends in α, ε, or o) in the Pres., Imperf., and 2d Aor.; in all which tenses the union-vowel coalesces with the root vowel. They have a peculiar inflection, chiefly by reason of the Imperf. and 2d Aor. act. taking throughout the terminations of the Aorists pass. The Pres. and Imperf. reduplicate with ι the initial consonant, (prefixing simply ί if that cannot be done, and sometimes adopting other modes of strengthening,) and in the act. they lengthen the root in the Indic., α or ε into η, ο into ω. The 2d Aor. (those in υμι being factitious have not this tense) has in the act. a long vowel or diphthong throughout, except the Imperative ε or o, and the Participle.
_Notes on Certain Verbs in μι._
§ 68. τίϑημι [_to put_] has, in the Act., 1st Aor. ἒϑηκα, Perf. τέϑεικα; ὀίὀωμι [_to give_] has, 1st Aor., ἒδωκα.
§ 69. εἰμί [_to be_] is inflected thus: εὶ [_thou art_], ἐστί(ν) [_is_], ἐσμέν, ἐστί, εἰσί(ν) [_we, ye, they are_], ἱσϑι [_be thou_], ὤν [_being_], etc.; the rest mostly regular. See the lexicon for these, and for ἵημι [_to send_], and εἰμι [_to go_].
§ 70. Several verbs annex σκω, ίνω, (ν)νυμι, etc., instead of μι, etc., in the Pres. and Imperf.
LESSON VI.
SYNTAX.--CONCORD.
§ 71. All words placed under the same construction agree together in all the accidents which they possess in common.