CHAPTER XXII

THE GYMNASIUM AND THE PALAESTRA

In Homeric times the gymnasium and the palaestra did not exist. The broad runs in Ithaca,[795] which are sometimes quoted as the prototype of the Greek gymnasia, were not running-tracks but cattle-runs. The need for special places for exercise first arose with the growth of city life. At first these were no more than open spaces in some grove or plain where the ground had been cleared for running or for wrestling. Such were the “runs and wrestling rings” which Cleisthenes of Sicyon prepared for his daughter’s suitors.[796] The place where the Spartan youth exercised retained its ancient name the “Dromos” or run, even in the time of Pausanias. The runs developed into the gymnasium, the wrestling-ring into the palaestra.

The word “gymnasium” means, properly, an athletic exercise. By a natural transference it comes to be used first in the plural, afterwards collectively in the singular for a place set apart for such exercises. It is a general term. The gymnasium is merely an athletic ground, or playing-field, where all sorts of sport take place. It contains “runs and wrestling-rings.” It may serve as a riding-school. Euripides speaks of “gymnasia resounding with the tramp of horses.”[797] It may contain buildings for the comfort of those who use it, but the essential part of the gymnasium is the running-ground. On the other hand, the palaestra is a special term for the wrestling-school. In its simplest form it is a square enclosure, containing some provision for undressing and washing. It is essentially a building. The palaestra may exist without a gymnasium, but no gymnasium can exist without a palaestra. Moreover, in a gymnasium the necessary buildings are naturally centred round the palaestra. Hence the palaestra being architecturally the most important part of the gymnasium, the two terms are in practice often used synonymously. Yet the original distinction is never wholly obliterated; in Pausanias the gymnasium is still the athletic ground, the palaestra the wrestling-school.[798]

Gymnasia probably existed in most Greek states in the sixth century or even earlier. Shade and water being essential for the comfort of those who used them, the site selected was usually a grove beside some stream outside the city. Such was the Platanistas at Sparta, an island formed by the windings of the river, and taking its name from the plane trees which surrounded it. Such were the three ancient gymnasia at Athens: the Academea, the Lyceum, and the Cynosarges. All three were sacred groves outside the walls of the city, the Academea on the west side, on the banks of the Cephisus, the other two on the east near the Eridanus and Ilissus. All three probably existed in the sixth century. The Academea was first enclosed with a wall by Hipparchus, and was afterwards improved by Cimon into a well-watered grove with trim avenues and walks. The origin of the Lyceum was variously ascribed to Peisistratus, Pericles, and Lycurgus. As it certainly existed in the time of Socrates, it was probably founded by Peisistratus, if not earlier, and underwent various improvements at the hands of Pericles and Lycurgus. The gymnasium of Cynosarges was reserved for bastards, and those whose parents were not both Athenian. Themistocles being the son of a Carian mother, and resenting his exclusion from the other gymnasia, succeeded in persuading some prominent young Athenians to accompany him to the Cynosarges. Slaves were not allowed to take any part in athletics, which were regarded as the distinctive mark of freeborn Greeks. The Academea and Lyceum were large enough to serve as riding-schools and parade-grounds for cavalry. The Athenian gymnasia were open to Athenians of all ages; boys were certainly not excluded, though, as we shall see, they were usually sent to the palaestra for education;[799] men of all ages resorted to them for their daily exercise; competitors for the games trained in them; above all, they were the training-school of the epheboi, at all events from the fifth century onwards. “When a boy is enrolled among the Epheboi,” says Socrates, in the Pseudo-Platonic dialogue called _Axiochus_,[800] “then come the Lyceum and the Academea, the rule of the gymnasiarchos, beatings with rods and ills innumerable.” Consequently, the gymnasia were the favourite resort of sophists and philosophers in search of pupils. Some philosophers habitually frequented certain gymnasia, which thereby became connected with particular schools of philosophy. In course of time literary studies prevailed over athletics, and the gymnasium developed into a sort of university.

The existence of palaestrae at Athens in the sixth century is attested by the speech of Aeschines against Timarchus. In this speech the orator refers to certain laws ascribed to Solon for the regulation of schools and palaestrae. The paidotribai were not to open the palaestrae before sunrise, and were to close them before sunset. There were regulations as to the class of boys to be admitted, their numbers and age, their discipline and the conduct of the Hermaea, a boy’s festival celebrated in the palaestrae. The actual text of the laws is spurious, but there is no reason for doubting the existence of the regulations mentioned by Aeschines, and their antiquity. But we must not confound the palaestrae referred to with those which formed part of the gymnasia. The latter were public institutions, mostly outside the city; the palaestrae for which Solon laid down regulations were such of the private palaestrae as were used for the physical education of boys. There were numerous private palaestrae, some perhaps built by rich individuals for their own use,[801] others kept by paidotribai[802] for profit. The publicity of the gymnasia and their remoteness rendered them unsuitable for the training of young boys. Parents and teachers naturally preferred the comparative privacy of the palaestra in the city. Some of these may have been attached to schools, others may have been reserved for boys of certain ages, or special times may have been reserved in them for different ages. Certainly it is at these palaestrae that the Athenian boys received their physical training. But it is no more correct to say that the palaestrae generally were reserved for the education of boys under the age of eighteen, than it is to say that no boys under that age were admitted to the gymnasia. Some of the palaestrae were certainly used by older pupils. In Plato’s _Lysis_ the sophist Miccus is stated to have established himself in a newly built palaestra. Boys of different ages are trained there at different times, but the pupils of Miccus are not boys, but epheboi or grown-up men, and these at all events had free entry there at certain times. The fact is that there were palaestrae of various sorts just as there are schools and colleges of various sorts in England to-day. To treat all the palaestrae as similar, and to endeavour to lay down hard and fast rules for all alike, is as ridiculous as it would be to write a treatise on the schools of England in which no distinction was made between primary schools and secondary schools, or between a college which forms part of a university and a college which is really a school.

Our knowledge of Greek gymnasia down to the fourth century is practically confined to Athens. The earliest existing gymnasium is that of Delphi, which belongs to the fourth century. The gymnasium at Olympia cannot be earlier than the third century. The only contemporary evidence for the fifth century is derived from the vase-paintings which give a vivid picture of the life of the gymnasium at Athens in the first half of this century, but yield only fragmentary evidence as to the arrangements of the gymnasium. Yet this evidence agrees so well with the remains discovered at Olympia and Delphi, and also with such scattered allusions as we find in literature, especially in Plato’s dialogues, that we may feel sure that the gymnasia and palaestrae of the fifth century throughout Greece were substantially of the type which we find in these places.[803]

The essential parts of the gymnasium or palaestra are clearly stated in the treatise on the Athenian Republic,[804] which if not written by Xenophon was probably written in the second half of the fifth century. The writer, speaking of the progress of the Athenian democracy, says: “As for gymnasia and baths and undressing-rooms some rich people have their own, but the people have built for their own use many palaestrae, dressing-rooms, and bath-rooms, and the mob has far more advantages in these respects than the fortunate few.” In this passage we notice, first, that there is no real distinction between gymnasium and palaestra; if there is any distinction, it is merely that the palaestra is somewhat more elaborate than the gymnasium, as the bath-room is more than the bath. Both are merely places for exercise. Secondly, the dressing-rooms and bath-rooms are clearly not independent buildings, but are connected with the gymnasia. Bath-rooms might exist separately, but what would be the use of separate undressing-rooms? Every gymnasium and every palaestra must contain, besides the actual “runs and wrestling-rings,” some place where those who use them may undress and oil themselves before exercise, and may wash themselves afterwards. These are the three essential parts of every such building, and all the complicated arrangements of the gymnasia at Ephesus and Pergamum are merely elaborations of these three requirements.

The dialogues of Plato illustrate alike the similarity and difference in the arrangements of a gymnasium and palaestra. The scene of the _Lysis_ is laid in the new-built palaestra to which reference has already been made. In general plan it resembles an ordinary one-storied Greek house. It is surrounded by a wall (περίβολος), the only opening in which is a door giving access to the street. Around this wall, on the inside, are placed the various rooms which all open out into the central court (αὐλή) which in the palaestra is considerably larger than in an ordinary house. On entering, the visitor finds himself in a sort of ante-chamber, from which he passes into a large hall called the apodyterion (ἀποδυτήριον). The front of this hall is open, so that it commands a view of the court, which is used for exercise. This hall, as its name denotes, is the undressing-room. But, like the modern cricket pavilion, it serves as a general meeting-place for all who frequent the palaestra. There are seats around the walls for their convenience. A group of boys are playing knuckle-bones when Socrates enters, and Socrates retreats to the farther corner to find a seat. Probably, if there were no other rooms, it was in the apodyterion that Miccus used to hold his classes. There may, of course, have been other rooms around the court, certainly there must have been some accommodation for washing, but as the bath-room is not conducive to serious conversation it naturally plays no part in these dialogues.

Now let us pass on to the Lyceum gymnasium.[805] The arrangement is similar, but on a larger scale. Close to the entrance is the apodyterion where Socrates takes his seat and watches people come and go. But besides the court, there is a covered track (κατάστεγος δρόμος), probably a colonnade running round one or more of the four sides of the court. This covered dromos is the place where Athenian gentlemen take their daily constitutional. As Socrates is waiting, two such enter, take two or three turns in this dromos, and then return to the apodyterion. Acumenos[806] indeed recommends a walk in the country as less fatiguing, but the gymnasium is a more sociable place, there is more life and amusement to be found there, and so the Athenian prefers it. But these covered runs are not for athletes or epheboi except in the worst of weather. For them tracks are provided in the park outside (ὁ ἔξω δρόμος) where, as in the Academy, they may run races “mid a fragrance of smilax, and leisure, and white poplar in the spring-season when the plane tree whispers to the elm.”[807]

The pictures on the red-figured vases enable us to fill in these outlines. These vases, manufactured mostly at Athens, between the years 520 and 440 B.C., represent the life of the Athenian epheboi, that is to say, life in the public gymnasia. On them we see scenes from the gymnasia proper, where youths are exercising, scenes from the apodyterion, and scenes from the bath-room.

We will first take a kylix in the Munich Museum, which gives a general picture of exercises in the gymnasium (Fig. 17). The scene takes place within a walled enclosure. The background represents this wall, or perhaps the wall of the apodyterion; for on it are hanging all the paraphernalia of the gymnasium, diskoi in their slings, halteres fastened together by a cord, strigils, oil-flasks, sponges. A pair of Ionic pillars frame the picture suggesting, perhaps, a covered colonnade. Sometimes these pillars are surmounted by a large flat block, which clearly indicates a roof. The actual exercises take place in the court in front, or the dromoi outside. In the ground are planted poles and picks. The poles are used as javelins for practice, and perhaps as measuring-rods; or as posts to mark the lines from which the jump is practised, or the diskos and javelin thrown. The two bearded men are instructors—paidotribai or gymnastai. Usually these are clothed in a long mantle; here they are naked, probably because they are teaching by example. One of them leans on the usual official staff and holds in his right hand a jumping-weight; the other holds in one hand a rod or javelin, in the other a thong for throwing the javelin, but it is not quite clear what his attitude means. The youth who looks on, leaning upon a pole, may be either a youthful assistant or a spectator.

Another kylix gives a vivid picture of the discipline of the gymnasium (Fig. 173). On one side are a pair of wrestlers, and looking on at them is an instructor wearing his robe, leaning on his staff with his right hand, while in his left he holds the forked rod with which he enforces discipline. On the other side is an instructor in the act of using this rod on some boxers. The youth who stands behind the first instructor with the pick may be another boxer taking this form of exercise, but the mantle rolled up round his waist suggests rather that he is an assistant who is loosening the ground of the skamma used by wrestlers and jumpers. On the interior of this vase is a third instructor, and a youth who seems to be measuring the ground with his feet, perhaps measuring the throw of a javelin, for he holds in his hands a javelin and its thong. The careless drawing of this amentum caused it to be misinterpreted formerly as a pair of compasses. Another figure frequently depicted in these scenes is the flute-player,[808] who is usually dressed in a long, gaudy robe, and wears round his head a curious sort of muzzle called φορβεία. These flute-players were probably slaves attached to the gymnasium.

Many of the exercises depicted require considerable space. The javelin and diskos could hardly be thrown with safety in the court of an ordinary palaestra. The open dromoi were the places for such sports. Here, too, it seems riding-lessons were given. Sometimes a group of athletes and a riding scene are placed on opposite sides of the same vase.[809] In these riding scenes pillars[810] are sometimes depicted, oil-flasks and other objects hang on the walls, and the instructors are the same as in athletic scenes. A good example of such a scene occurs on a kylix in Munich (Fig. 174). There are three naked epheboi, one already mounted, one leading a horse and holding in his hand the familiar forked rod, the third is being instructed in the art of vaulting on to his horse by means of a spear or pole. An oil-flask indicates the building, while a tree suggests the groves of the gymnasium.

Scenes in the Apodyterion are very numerous, especially on later vases. We will first take a kylix in the Museum at Copenhagen (Fig. 175). The broad tops of the pillars suggest the roof of the room. Hanging or leaning against the wall are the usual paraphernalia; one object seems curious, it is a hare. Perhaps one of the epheboi has just caught it, or he has brought it as a present to his trainer, or received it as a present or prize.[811] A group of youths and trainers are standing about or seated on stools. Some are fully dressed, others naked; one is scraping himself with a strigil, another is just about to put on his mantle; his walking-stick rests against the wall behind him. Some clothes are placed on one of the stools. We can quite understand the necessity of severe laws against theft in the gymnasia. A law attributed to Solon imposed the penalty of death on any one who stole from the Lyceum, or Acadamea, or Cynosarges a himation, or an oil-flask, or any other object worth more than ten drachmae.[812]

After divesting himself of his clothes and placing them in as safe a place as possible, the athlete next proceeded to anoint himself with oil and carefully rub the oil into the skin. He might do so himself or obtain the services of an attendant, the aleiptes. The terms aleiptes and paidotribes indicate the importance which the Greeks attached to the oiling and massaging of the body both before and after exercise. These processes were afterwards developed into elaborate arts, and special rooms were set apart for them, but in the fifth century they were comparatively simple and took place either in the apodyterion or else in the open air.[813] The oil was contained in little narrow necked flasks of various shapes, lekythoi, aryballoi, alabastra. Each person probably brought his own flask of oil and his strigil. At times of festival oil was supplied free to all competitors, and in later times gymnasiarchoi and other high officials showed their generosity by providing at their own expense the oil required for the epheboi using the gymnasia. A krater in Berlin (Fig. 176) shows a group of epheboi undressing and preparing for exercise. One of them has just taken off his himation and folded it up and is about to hand it to a slave-boy, either his own slave or one attached to the gymnasium. Another has laid his himation on a stool, and is pouring some oil from an aryballos into his left hand. To his left stands a third ephebos resting on his stick, with his mantle thrown loosely across his shoulders, while a small slave removes a thorn from his foot. The other side of the vase illustrates the curious custom of infibulation. Massaging is, as far as I know, not depicted on any vases; but a drawing of an aleiptes rubbing down a boxer occurs on a bronze cist in the Vatican[814] (Fig. 177).

It may have been in the Apodyterion, or else in some other corner of the gymnasium, that the korykos (κώρυκος) was fixed up. In later times a special room was provided for the korykos, but its use at this time is proved by the caricature of a pankratiast using it which occurs on a vase in St. Petersburg (Fig. 178). The korykos was a sort of punchball, a leathern bag or skin filled with fig grains, meal, or sand, and suspended from the branch of a tree or a beam. It varied in size. The larger sort which was used by pankratiasts was about the size of a sack of coals, and was hung so that the bottom of it was on a level with the athlete’s waist. The boxer used a smaller korykos about the size of a punchball hung on a level with his head, to judge from the picture of it on the Ficoroni cist, a work of the third century B.C. (Fig. 179).[815] In the later gymnasia a special room was set apart for ball-play; but popular as ball games always were they seem to have been of little or no importance in the gymnasia of the fifth century.

The bathing arrangements in the gymnasium were severely simple. There existed, indeed, even in the time of Herodotus and Aristophanes, separate bathing establishments (βαλανεῖα) where hot baths and even vapour baths were to be obtained.[816] But these balaneia had nothing to do with the gymnasia, and are indeed sharply contrasted with them. To frequent them was considered, at all events among old-fashioned folk, to be a sign of effeminacy. Aristophanes bitterly complains that the effect of the new-fashioned education was to empty the wrestling schools and fill the balaneia, and Plato considers hot baths only suitable for the old and feeble.[817] In later times elaborate baths of this type were attached to the gymnasia, and became so important that the athletic part of the building was little more than an apanage of the baths. But there is no sign of such baths in connexion with the gymnasia of the fifth century, nor do they exist in the later gymnasia at Delphi and Olympia. The epheboi of the fifth century washed in cold water after exercise. The simplest form of washing is represented on a black-figured hydria in Leyden which dates from the close of the sixth century (Fig. 180).[818] A group of men and boys are washing at a fountain which stands in the grove of the gymnasium. Their clothes hang on the branches of the trees. The fountain itself is under a portico, and the water issues from two panthers’ heads under which a man and a boy are taking a douche and rubbing themselves. On either side stand others preparing for the bath. One on the left lifts in his right hand what is probably an oil-flask, while on the right we see a youth engaged in powdering himself. Various powders were used, a sort of lye obtained from wood ashes, an alkali called litron and somewhat similar to nitre, and a kind of fuller’s earth.[819] After oiling and powdering his body the bather rubbed himself till a lather was obtained.

On the red-figured vases the washing takes place in a bath-room forming a part of the gymnasium and probably adjoining the apodyterion. In the centre of this room is set a large stone or metal basin placed on a stand. Close to it a cistern is sometimes represented, and on one vase we see a youth pouring water into the basin from a bucket which he has drawn up from the cistern by means of a rope and windlass[820] (Fig. 181). The inscription on the basin (δημόσια) shows that it is a public bath. One youth is splashing the water over himself, but a more satisfactory way of washing is to get a friend or assistant to swill a bucket of water over you in the manner represented on a kylix in the British Museum (Fig. 182). On the other side of this kylix is seen a group of youths scraping themselves with strigils (στλεγγίδες). The strigil was in constant use in the gymnasium to remove dirt and sweat after exercise or remove moisture and lather after the bath. It was made of iron or bronze, sometimes of silver or even of gold; the handles are sometimes highly ornamental. Many of them exist in the British Museum and elsewhere. Their shape will be best understood from the accompanying illustration of a fifth-century strigil from the British Museum, on which the owner’s name is inscribed (Fig. 183). A youth scraping himself with a strigil is the motive of the well-known statue, the “Apoxyomenos,” formerly ascribed to Lysippus.

Plunge baths (κολυμβήθραι) certainly existed at this period. A red-figured amphora[821] in the Louvre signed by Andocides (_c._ 500 B.C.) shows a group of women bathing in a swimming bath. One is swimming, while another is preparing to dive into the water. We shall find plunge baths both at Delphi and Olympia, but we have no evidence for their existence in the gymnasia of the fifth century.

In passing on to the gymnasia at Delphi and Olympia we must bear in mind the essential difference which distinguishes them from the gymnasia at Athens, which we have been considering. The latter were intended for the regular use of a large resident population. At Delphi, and still more at Olympia, the resident population was small and scattered; and though they doubtless took advantage of the gymnasia, these buildings were primarily erected, not for their use, but for the use of the competitors in the four-yearly festivals. Hence there was no need for the shady walks and avenues which formed so prominent a feature of the early gymnasia at Athens, nor for the lecture-rooms and libraries which were provided for the literary training of the epheboi in the gymnasia of Ptolemaeus Philadelphus or Hadrian. The gymnasia at Delphi and Olympia were strictly practical and athletic.

The gymnasium at Delphi[822] is a good example of the skill with which the Greeks adapted their buildings to the nature of the ground (Fig. 184). It lies a little to the south-west of the precinct of Apollo below the road which runs from Itea to Arachova and on the steep slopes which overhang the valley of the Pleistus. It is built on two terraces, the upper of which forms a rectangle some 180 metres long by 25 or 30 metres deep, and contains the running tracks, while the lower terrace contains the palaestra proper and the baths. The fine retaining wall which divides the two terraces, and other architectural remains point to the existence of the gymnasium in the early part of the fourth century, and most of the parts which have been excavated are mentioned in an inscription containing the official accounts for repairing the stadium and gymnasium in the year 258 B.C.

The upper terrace was bounded above by the outer wall of the gymnasium. It contained a covered running-track 7 metres broad, and a double uncovered track 20 metres broad. These are the ξυστόν and παραδρομίς of the inscription. They are divided from one another by a stone water channel which, besides carrying off rain water, provided water for the athletes when training. Another channel, which divided the paradromis into two unequal parts, carried water from the Castalian stream to the baths in the lower terrace. The Ionic pillars which formed the colonnade (περίστυλος) of the xystos are of poor and late workmanship, and seem to have replaced an earlier Doric colonnade. Neither xystos nor paradromis was paved; but, as we learn from the accounts of Dion’s archonship, they were dug up, rolled, and covered with fine white sand. Six picks (ἐπισκαφεῖα) were provided either for this work or for the use of the athletes.[823] The length of the xystos, 180 metres, is approximately that of the Delphic stadium, which was 177 metres.

The lower terrace contains an irregular enclosure forming the baths, and a small palaestra 32 metres square. The latter consists of a small court nearly 14 metres square, surrounded by a colonnade (περίστυλος) on to which several rooms open on the north and west sides. The uses of these rooms cannot be determined. The inscription mentions an apodyterion, a κόνιμα, and two σφαιριστήρια. The κόνιμα is probably another name for the skamma or wrestling ring which is also called κονίστρα, and if so may be identified with the central court.[824] The wrestling ring was covered with fine sand, and the contract appropriately mentions the “sifting of the earth” in the konima (τᾶς γᾶς τὰν σάσιν) at a cost of ten drachmae. The sphairisteria were rooms, or perhaps open courts, for ball play. In one of them the ground was to be dug up and rolled, then carefully raked over and levelled, and finally covered with black earth. A wall, too, is mentioned in the sphairisterion. Among the various games of ball practised by the Greeks we find mention of one which consisted in bouncing the ball on the ground or against a wall, and striking it back with the flat of the hand as it rebounded. The object was to keep it up as many times as possible; the first to miss was called the donkey, and had to submit to any penalty imposed by the winner or “king,” as he was called.[825] The palaestra at Delphi was not spacious enough for games in which the balls were thrown with any violence, but the carefully prepared floor and the wall may well have served for the games described, which seem to have been quite familiar in Plato’s time. As athletics became professional, ball play seems to have become increasingly popular, and the ball alley probably became a recognized part of the palaestra. The little private palaestra owned by the “Man of Petty Ambitions” (μικροφιλότιμος) in Theophrastus contains “a wrestling arena and a sphairisterion,”[826] the two parts mentioned in the Delphic inscription. Alexander the Great was specially fond of ball play, and one Aristonicus of Carystus, described as his “sphairistes,” received at the hands of the Athenians the citizenship and an honorary statue.[827]

The baths lay in an irregular enclosure to the north of the palaestra. The washing arrangements are particularly interesting from their resemblance to what we have seen pictured on the vases. The whole enclosure was uncovered. The east side of it was formed by the retaining wall of the upper terrace, and in this wall a series of fountains were arranged precisely similar to those illustrated in Fig. 180. The water was supplied from the conduit in the upper terrace and issued through eleven bronze spouts in the shape of animals’ heads, placed at such a height as to fall conveniently over the head and shoulders of the bathers beneath. It was caught below in eleven basins, which were used for washing in the manner represented on the vases, and from the basins it fell into large stone troughs by which it was carried outside the building to fall into the Castalian ravine. In the centre of the enclosure was a circular plunge bath (κολυμβήθρα) 10 metres in diameter, and 1·80 metres in depth, the sides of which sloped downwards towards the centre in a series of stone steps. There were no warm baths in the old gymnasium, but these seem to have been added in Roman times, and their remains exist to the north of the older building.

The gymnasium and palaestra at Olympia[828] (Fig. 185), situated on the left bank of the Cladeus to the north-west of the Altis, are far more symmetrical in plan and more elaborate than those at Delphi. The palaestra appears to be somewhat older than the gymnasium, and was built in the third century B.C. It is a building 66 metres square enclosing an open court 41 metres square, surrounded by a colonnade of Doric columns on which numerous rooms open. There are two entrances at the corners of the southern wall, and a third door in the middle of the northern wall gives access to the gymnasium proper. The two chief entrances consist of pillared vestibules leading into small anterooms which open on to the covered colonnade. In the eastern anteroom are remains of a hearth or altar. Between the two anterooms is a long narrow room or gallery only separated from the colonnade by a row of pillars, in which we may certainly recognize the apodyterion. In the north-eastern corner is a bathroom, and in it were found remains of a brick-lined bath of Roman date 4 metres square and 1·38 metres deep. There is another basin in the adjacent corner of the gymnasium at the point where the southern corridor opens on to the street. There are no signs in the palaestra or gymnasium of the warm baths which are so important a feature of the gymnasium described by Vitruvius. In Roman times warm baths were installed at Olympia not in the palaestra but in a separate building to the south-west. It is impossible to determine the uses of the various rooms surrounding the court. Some of them are closed with doors, and doubtless served for storing the oil, sand, and other requisites of the palaestra. The larger rooms are open in front. In five of the rooms there are remains of stone seats round the walls, and the floor is paved with concrete. Such rooms must have been used as exedrai or galleries for the spectators, but hardly, as it is sometimes stated, as lecture rooms for philosophers and other teachers, who would certainly have preferred the greater publicity afforded by the opisthodome of the temple of Zeus or by the stoai. The palaestra and gymnasium at Olympia must have been practically confined to the use of competitors, and the practice of these competitors naturally drew thither crowds of friends and interested spectators. In some of the rooms there are traces of altars and bases of statues. Such buildings were always under the patronage of certain gods and heroes. Hermes was in a special sense the patron of the palaestra, and at Athens festivals were held there in his honour. At Elis one of the gymnasia contained altars to Idaean Heracles, to Eros and Anteros, to Demeter and Persephone, and the statues of the first three were placed in the gymnasium called Maltho which was specially reserved for wrestlers. Honorary statues were also sometimes placed in the gymnasia, and at Olympia there were tablets inscribed with the lists of Olympic victors.

The most curious feature in the palaestra at Olympia is a strip of tiled pavement along the north side of the court. It is 24 metres long by 5 metres broad, and consists of two bands of rough ribbed tiles 1·60 metres in breadth divided by a band of smooth tiles 1 metre broad, while a double row of these same tiles runs along the upper edge of the pavement. The edges of these smooth tiles are raised so as to form continuous ridges running the whole length of the pavement. The purpose of this curious pavement is unknown; it certainly cannot have been intended as a wrestling ring, or as a jumping ground, as certain learned writers have with unconscious humour suggested. The most plausible hypothesis is that it was used for some unknown game of ball, and this hypothesis finds some support from the existence of a somewhat similar bowling alley in the larger Thermae at Pompeii, on which two large heavy stone balls were actually found.[829]

Of the gymnasium proper which lay to the north of the palaestra nothing remains but portions of the southern and eastern colonnades. All the western side has been destroyed by the floods of the Cladeus. The southern colonnade consisted of a single row of pillars parallel to the north wall of the palaestra, with which it communicated by a door in the centre of the wall. The eastern colonnade was not, however, continuous with the east wall of the palaestra, but, to avoid the slope of Mount Cronius, was diverted so as to form a slightly acute angle with the southern colonnade. It was 210 metres long by nearly 12 metres broad, and divided into two tracks by a row of Doric pillars. The similar row of pillars which formed its western front began only on a level with the third of the central pillars from the south, and ended with the third pillar from the north. At these two points are traces of the attachment of stone sills such as were found in the stadium, and the distance between these two points, 192·27 metres, is exactly the distance of the Olympic stadium. This double track was the xystos, or covered running-track, and athletes could practise there under precisely the same conditions as in the actual stadium. On the western side of the gymnasium were rooms for the accommodation of competitors during the festival, and possibly in front of them another xystos. In the centre of the open court was constructed a sort of stone stand for the spectators described by Pausanias as κρηπίς, the term which he uses for the rows of stone steps below the treasury terrace in the Altis. But of this and of the lodgings of the athletes, and of the paradromides or uncovered tracks which doubtless existed here, not a trace is left.

The gymnasia at Epidaurus and Delos belong apparently to the same period, and as far as can be judged from their scanty remains were very similar in type. They bear a much closer resemblance to the buildings described by the Roman architect Vitruvius, who lived in the time of Augustus, than do the elaborate gymnasia of later times, which we find at Ephesus and Pergamum. They differ, however, from the Vitruvian type in the absence of hot baths. In Lucian’s time the Lyceum at Athens certainly possessed a hot bath and a plunge bath, and perhaps these existed in Hellenistic times. It is probable that such gymnasia, which were the daily resort of the inhabitants of Athens, resembled the Vitruvian type more closely than did the gymnasia of Olympia and Delphi, which were chiefly used at the seasons of the festivals by competitors. Now that excavation has revealed to us the actual plans of so many gymnasia and palaestrae, the descriptions of Vitruvius are of only secondary importance, and it is needless to discuss the various reconstructions of his plans which the reader will find fully treated in all books of reference. It will be sufficient here to discuss briefly such of the various parts of the building mentioned by him as have not already been noticed.

The palaestra of Vitruvius is of the same type as that at Olympia, a square court surrounded by colonnades on to which the various rooms enter. On three sides the colonnades are single, and the rooms are provided with benches for the use of philosophers, rhetoricians, and men of letters, who can sit there and converse with one another, or lecture to their pupils. The colonnade on the fourth side, which faces south in the ideal palaestra, is double, and the rooms behind it are devoted to the needs of those who take exercise in the palaestra. These rooms are elaborations of the simple apodyterion and bathroom. In the centre is a large hall provided with seats called the ephebeion,[830] which probably served rather as a general club-room for the epheboi than as a dressing-room. For dressing and washing, full provision is made in the rooms to left and right.

To the right are the elaiothesion, and a series of rooms connected with the hot baths. The elaiothesion is the room where the oil was stored, and perhaps also where athletes and bathers oiled themselves. Oil was used not only before exercise, but both before and after the bath. A large supply was required, and, as has been already mentioned, there was no better way in which a gymnasiarchos could show his liberality than by providing oil for the use of the epheboi at his own expense. We even hear of cases where a sum of money was left to form an endowment for this purpose.[831] The oil was kept in amphorae or tanks. A picture of such a tank occurs on the funeral stele found at Prusa of one Diodorus, a gymnasiarchos, who, we may suppose, had celebrated his term of office by himself providing the oil (Fig. 186). It is a large circular tank, somewhat resembling a font, supported on three elaborately wrought legs. On its side hang three ladles (ἀρυτῆρες), which were used for measuring out the oil. Each perhaps held a kyathos, a small liquid measure equal to about 1/12 of a pint. A Spartan inscription referring to some athletic contest, perhaps the Leonidaea, directs that the gymnasiarchos shall provide daily four kyathoi for each man, three for each ageneios, and two for each boy.

Next to the elaiothesion comes the frigidarium, a term usually denoting the cold bath, but here apparently corresponding to the tepidarium of the Roman baths, a room kept at a moderate temperature, heated if necessary by a brazier, where bathers were oiled and scraped and massaged before or after the bath.[832] A passage separates this room from the propnigeion, a hot-air chamber connected with the furnace, and adjoining this is the large vaulted sweating-room (_concamerata sudatio_) which contains the hot-water bath (_calda lavatio_) and the hot-air bath (_laconicum_). It is curious to find one of the principal parts of those luxurious hot baths bearing a name which denotes its Spartan origin. Perhaps the Spartans employed this means of reducing weight in training. Exposure to the heat of the sun’s rays was a recognized part of athletic training, and helped to give the skin the rich brown tone which the Greeks so greatly admired. Philostratus in the chapter in which he deals with this point ridicules the use of the sweating-bath (πυριατήριον) and rubbing with oil without a bath (ξηραλοιφεῖν) as parts of the unscientific system of training adopted by the Spartans, the object of which was merely to produce the power of endurance.[833]

On the other side of the ephebeion are three rooms, the korykeion, the konisterion, and the cold bath. The korykeion can hardly mean anything else than the room of the korykos, or punch-ball. Some writers have objected to this interpretation on the ground that the korykos was not of sufficient importance to have a room especially allotted to its use, and they have therefore suggested that the korykos referred to in this term was not a punch-ball but a basket or string bag, in which visitors to the palaestra brought their luncheon. The explanation is ingenious, but hardly satisfactory. The punch-ball, as we have seen, was known in the fifth century, and is represented on works of art. It was used by boxers and pankratiasts, and, as has been made clear in the first part of this work, boxing and the pankration were by far the most popular events, especially in Hellenistic and Roman times. Hence it is not evident that the korykos was of secondary importance. Moreover, it is a most significant coincidence that the chapter in Philostratus describing the korykos follows immediately on the chapter on the various kinds of konis, and in Vitruvius the korykeion and konisterion are next to one another.

If the above view is correct, the konisterion of Vitruvius is obviously the powdering-room, where athletes powdered themselves before exercise. This powder (κόνις) which they used must not be confused with the lye (κονία) which was used in washing to form a lather. Indeed, its effects were just the opposite; instead of forming a lather with the oil it helped to dry it, and thus counteracted the excessive slipperiness which the oil produced. Its effects on the body were regarded as no less beneficial than those of the oil. It closed the pores of the skin, checked excessive perspiration, and kept the body cool, thus protecting it from chills and rendering it less susceptible to fatigue.[834] There were also special sorts of powder credited with special virtues.[835] One of a clayey nature (πηλώδης) was supposed to be particularly cleansing; another resembling brick dust (ὀστρακώδης) produced perspiration in bodies which were over-dry; a third of bituminous character (ἀσφαλτώδης) warmed the skin. Two sorts, a black and a yellow, both of an earthy character, were especially prized for making the body supple and sleek, the yellow in particular imparting to the skin the glossiness which was the sign of good training. The powder was kept in baskets (σπυρίδες). Philostratus describes how it should be applied, thrown on with a supple wrist and the fingers slightly opened so as to fall like fine dust. But these are refinements for the few. The ordinary youth contented himself with the ordinary earth or sand. Lucian in his _Anacharsis_ describes the youths in the court of the gymnasium picking up the sand and throwing it over one another. Sometimes it seems the earth was mixed with water into a sort of mud, and then the simplest plan was to roll in it. Under the Empire a special sort of ointment (κήρωμα) was used, and the term ceroma was applied to part of the palaestra; but the ceroma belongs to Rome, not to Greece.

The gymnasium of Vitruvius occupies an intermediate position between the true Greek gymnasium and the type which was prevalent under the Empire. The prominent feature of the latter is the elaboration of the buildings, especially of those connected with the warm baths. Indeed, as every bath had its court for exercise, it is sometimes difficult to decide whether some particular building was a bathing establishment or a gymnasium. The most familiar example of these later gymnasia is that at Ephesus; but as the plans of it are to be found in every text-book it is unnecessary to discuss it at length. It consists of a rectangular block of buildings some 80 by 100 metres, standing in the centre of a large enclosed court. Of this outer enclosure very few traces are left, and the imaginary restoration of its courts commonly reproduced rests on no other foundation than the desire of early archaeologists to accomplish the absolutely impossible task of reproducing in it all the features of the Vitruvian gymnasium. The central block of buildings, however, which we may call the palaestra, is fairly well preserved, although the identification of most of the rooms is extremely doubtful. Its plan is almost exactly the reverse of the earlier palaestra. Round three sides of the interior, if not all four sides, there runs a vaulted colonnade (_cryptoporticus_), while the great central courtyard is almost entirely occupied by the hot baths and buildings connected with them, the ancient wrestling ring being reduced to a narrow strip along one side.

The two gymnasia excavated by the Germans at Priene[836] illustrate the earlier and the later types. The lower gymnasium (Fig. 187) which adjoins the stadium near the south wall of the town appears to have been built between the years 130 and 120 B.C. It is very similar in plan to the Vitruvian palaestra, consisting of a court about 35 metres square surrounded by a colonnade. On the north side, facing south, the colonnade is double, as recommended by Vitruvius. On this side and on the west a number of rooms open into it; on the other two sides there are none. The entrance is in the centre of the west side, and is in the form of an Ionic propylaion. To the north of it is an exedra fitted with stone benches, and in the north-west corner is the Loutron or bathroom, which is in excellent preservation and extremely interesting. Along the north side is placed a row of stone troughs into which water flows from a row of lions’ heads about 3 feet from the ground (Fig. 188). On either side of the doorway in the south wall are remains of stone benches, in front of which are troughs in the floor, so that people could sit there and bathe their feet. There is no trace of any hot baths in this gymnasium. In the centre of the north wall is the ephebeion, a large lofty room, open in front save for two massive pillars. There are stone benches round the walls, the upper part of which was decorated by an elaborate arrangement of half pillars and architraves, on either side of a round arched niche containing a large statue of a draped man. The walls and pillars are covered with names of those who used the hall, usually in the form ὁ τόπος Νέστορος τοῦ Νέστορος, “the place of Nestor, the son of Nestor.” Another large hall at the north-east corner has some traces of shelves, and may have been used as a place for undressing and leaving clothes. The northern side of the gymnasium is cut out of the slope of the hill, and was evidently two-storied. Above the ephebeion seems to have been a large square room cut still farther back into the hill. Perhaps there was an entrance from the street above into this upper story. These upper rooms may have served as class-rooms. In Hellenistic times the gymnasium was often a school where training was given for mind as well as body.

The upper gymnasium at Priene stood in the middle of the town. It was the older of the two, for we learn from an inscription that it already existed at the time when the lower gymnasium was being built. In its original plan it seems to have been very similar; but so many alterations have been made in it, and so much subsequent building has taken place on the site, that we cannot be certain of its details. What is certain is that in Roman times it was provided with hot baths. These baths are referred to in an interesting inscription detailing the services rendered by one Zosimus, who lived perhaps in the first century B.C. “From a desire that every young man might attend the gymnasium for the culture of his body, he had the furnace lighted all through the winter.”[837]

Zosimus seems to have been an enthusiastic educationalist. Not only did he provide for the physical training and recreation of the young “a punch-ball, and hoops, and also balls and weapons,” he also provided for the students a teacher in literature. He instituted competitions in all accomplishments of mind and body, and showed the most lavish generosity in furnishing oil and unguents in the gymnasium and in the bath, for all visitors to the festivals of Priene. Among the competitions which he instituted were a “squill fight” (σκιλλομαχία), and boxing in clothes (ἐν εἵμασι). For the former he gave a heifer as a prize, while each successful boxer received a golden fillet. The precise meaning of the “squill fight” is uncertain; it was perhaps some sort of ceremonial contest connected with the worship of Pan. The wearing of clothes in boxing was possibly a concession to the Roman prejudice against nudity.

Equally interesting are the extensive remains of the gymnasia at Pergamum recently excavated by the German archaeologists.[838] These remains belong mostly to the second century A.D., but many traces of earlier buildings survive. Built originally in the second century B.C., or earlier, under the early kings of Pergamum, the gymnasia underwent various modifications and reconstructions in the succeeding centuries, and may be regarded as typical of the gymnasia existing in Hellenistic and Roman times in these rich cities of the East, which, after the loss of Greek independence, became the chief centres of athletic activity. Like the gymnasium at Delphi, they bear witness to the ingenuity of the Greeks in adapting their buildings to the exigencies of the ground, while the magnitude of the work involved is a striking proof of the wealth of the Attalidae. They were built on a series of three terraces cut out of the steep face of the hill above the road which led up to the upper city. The lowest terrace at its western end is some twelve metres above the road, and the other terraces are about the same height above one another. The terraces are supported by numerous retaining walls, strengthened by buttresses and cross walls forming a series of compartments filled up with earth and rubble. Each terrace formed a separate gymnasium, devoted respectively to the use of boys, epheboi, and young men. It seems that there were originally four terraces, corresponding perhaps to the four gymnasia mentioned in an inscription of the time of Attalus III. (146 B.C.).[839] In the time of Tiberius, Pergamum possessed five gymnasia, and at a later period six, but the site of these additional gymnasia is unknown at present. Elder men, and foreigners too, had the privilege of using the gymnasia. An inscription in honour of Metrodorus,[840] a gymnasiarchos who lived at the close of the second century B.C., records that besides offering prizes for boys and epheboi he spent a considerable sum in providing “elder men” with “all things necessary for their health.” The generosity of these gymnasiarchoi is frequently recorded in inscriptions. The office seems to have been held by the most distinguished citizens. The general direction of education was in the hands of four Paidonomoi.

The general arrangement of the buildings will be sufficiently clear from the accompanying plan (Fig. 189). The lowest terrace, which was the gymnasium of the boys, consists of a narrow triangle, about 80 metres long and 25 broad at its widest point, divided into two parts by a wall. Its northern side is formed by the retaining wall of the middle terrace, the buttresses of which form niches containing long stone bases on which were placed statues and stelai. One of these stelai contains a list of boys who have passed out into the ranks of the epheboi. The middle terrace forms the gymnasium of the latter. It measures 150 by 36 metres, and contains at its eastern end a small Corinthian temple, the walls of which seem to have been covered with lists of epheboi. The northern side is formed by a long double colonnade, and beyond it to the east a series of rooms, one of which is an exedra open to the front. This double colonnade, which is two metres above the level of the court, seems to have replaced an earlier single colonnade.

The upper terrace is far the most extensive. It contains the gymnasium of the young men, and to the east the thermae or hot baths. This gymnasium is identified on account of its size with what is called in an inscription “The Panegyric Gymnasium,” where doubtless public festivals and competitions were held. It consisted of an open court 36 by 74 metres, surrounded by a Corinthian colonnade of the time of Hadrian, which replaced an earlier Doric building. In front of the pillars are bases on which statues were placed. Numerous rooms opened on to the colonnade, those on the north being especially spacious. One of these, a large hall with an apse at either end, is named by the excavators the Imperial Hall, on account of an inscription which it has on the architrave, “To the Emperors and the Fatherland.” The floor of the court is unpaved, but at the north-east corner is a small circular pavement which may mark the site of a washing-fountain. Along the south side of the gymnasium is a long corridor extending a considerable distance beyond the gymnasium on either side to a total length of 200 metres, which was obviously the xystos or running track, and behind this track are some thirty or more small rooms which may have served as lodgings for competitors. These rooms must have been a late addition; for in the original building there ran underneath the half-open corridor a second vaulted corridor, the windows of which must have been blocked by the later buildings. This covered running track (crypto-porticus) seems originally to have looked out on a fourth terrace dividing the upper and middle terraces, the northern half of which was subsequently occupied by the foundations of the rooms described, while the southern half was dug away so as to form part of the new double colonnade of the middle terrace. From this date the vaulted corridor became useless for athletic purposes. The eastern half of the terrace is occupied by the thermae, with the details of which we are not concerned.

Pending the final publication of the results of the excavations, it is useless to try to determine the uses of the various buildings. Some of these are mentioned in inscriptions. Diodorus, the son of Heroidas,[841] a distinguished citizen who filled the office of gymnasiarchos about the year 127 B.C., restored the gymnasium of the young men, and repaired the covered colonnade, περίπατος, surrounding the court. Further, finding that the konisterion or dusting-room was quite unworthy of the gymnasium, he built another at his own expense with a marble exedra in front, and rebuilt in marble the cold bath adjoining it. Metrodorus, whom we have already mentioned, placed several public basins (ληνοί) in the bathroom and improved the water-supply. He placed in the sphairisterion two public basins described as λουτῆρας, which seem to have been used to hold oil, and he also made suitable provision for the safe keeping of clothes. In recognition of these gifts his statue was erected in the paradromis of the gymnasium.

Athletics being an essential part of Greek education, the gymnasia were naturally under the control of the various magistrates charged with the education and discipline of the young. The titles and functions of these magistrates and also of the officials who formed the staff of the gymnasia varied considerably at different times and places, and the differences between them are therefore very ill-defined. To discuss them fully is impossible within the limits of this book, nor would it be profitable, most of the details which we know about them belonging to Hellenistic and Roman periods. I shall, therefore, confine myself to a brief general account of the most important of these officials, referring the reader for fuller details to special works dealing with the subject.

The gymnasiarchos[842] must have been originally the magistrate in charge of the gymnasium, and it can only be an accident that the earliest officials of this name whom we know of, the gymnasiarchoi of Athens in the fifth and fourth centuries, had no such general control of the gymnasia and were little more than lampadarchoi, responsible for the training of teams for the various torch-races which were one of the favourite amusements of the Athenian populace. Perhaps the reason for this narrow use of the term was that from the time of Solon, the discipline and education of the young, and consequently the supervision of the gymnasia, was in the hands of a board of ten called sophronistai, while at the close of the fourth century we find a single magistrate, the kosmetes, apparently taking over their functions and exercising supreme control over the epheboi. Hence there was at Athens no room for a special gymnasiarchos such as we find in many Greek states from the third century onwards, and such as must undoubtedly have existed at a much earlier date, if we may trust the obvious meaning of the title.

The gymnasiarchia at Athens was one of the regular leitourgiai or public services exacted from rich citizens for the benefit of the sovereign people. The duty of the gymnasiarchos in early days was to train a team of youths or of boys, or sometimes two teams, for one of the many torch-races. These teams represented the different tribes, each one of which selected a certain number of names of rich tribesmen and submitted them to the King Archon to make the final choice. The selected gymnasiarchos had to collect and train a team, find their instructors, provide oil and torches, and pay for all other expenses. If his team was successful he dedicated a memorial of the victory to the gods, and in return for all his trouble his name figured alone or at the head of his epheboi in the official list of victors, and in records of the victory. He doubtless exercised some authority over the epheboi in his tribe, or at least over those in his team, but had no general control over the public gymnasia.

In Hellenistic and Roman times the gymnasiarchos appears as a sort of minister of education, maintaining discipline among the young, exercising control over the gymnasia, and generally providing out of his own pocket many of the expenses incurred. Sometimes the gymnasiarchia is still a voluntary service. Such was the case at Athens, and in many other states especially in Asia Minor under the Empire. Among the distinguished men who undertook this office we find Marcus Antonius at Athens and at Alexandria, Tiberius and Germanicus at Salamis in Cyprus, Titus at Naples, Hadrian at Eleusis, and, needless to say, Herodes Atticus at Athens. The office was usually held for a year, but was sometimes voluntarily renewed and even continued for life and handed down from father to son. We even hear of women serving as gymnasiarchoi.

Generally in the last three centuries B.C. the gymnasiarchia is not a leitourgia but a public magistracy. The gymnasiarchos is appointed by the assembly and holds office for one year. At Ceos[843] he has to be over thirty years of age. An inscription from Phintia[844] tells us that he has charge of the epheboi, the neoteroi, and generally of those who use the gymnasia, and of all business connected with the gymnasia. He is assisted by subordinates, sometimes by a hypogymnasiarchos, sometimes by a paidonomos who looks after the younger boys, sometimes by other gymnasiarchoi responsible for youths of different ages. At Teos[845] he is charged with the appointment and payment of the hoplomachos and the instructor in the use of the bow and the javelin. He is responsible for the discipline of the young, checks rioting or disorder among them, supervises their education in literature as well as athletics, above all he personally superintends the military training of the epheboi, and organises competitions to test their efficiency, He maintains discipline sometimes with the rod, sometimes by means of fines.

Whether the gymnasiarchia was a leitourgia or a public magistracy it involved considerable expense. The sums allotted by the state for the service of the gymnasia were often ludicrously inadequate, and the gymnasiarchos had usually to supplement them out of his own pocket; often indeed, disdaining to use the public money at all, he provided for all expenses himself. The chief expense was the provision of oil. Even in a small state like Iasos the supply of oil for a single gymnasium cost 450 denarii a month.[846] During the Empire the number of competitions, and consequently the expenses for oil and other purposes, were multiplied at an extraordinary rate. At Tauromenium the number of competitions rose from twenty-four a year in A.D. 69 to eighty-one in A.D. 92.[847] Sacrifices, processions, feasts, prizes afforded ample scope to the liberality of the gymnasiarchos, which often took a more permanent form in costly repairs and additions to the buildings of the gymnasia and baths.

The gymnasiarchoi described above must not be confused with the ephebic gymnasiarchoi at Athens, officers elected by the epheboi from their own ranks. The expenses of training were borne to a great extent by the epheboi themselves, and they seem, therefore, often to have elected as captains rich youths who were willing to provide wholly or in part for the public expenses, for any period from a month to a year.

The actual teachers were the paidotribes and the gymnastes. The paidotribes, as his name denotes, was properly the teacher of boys, who trained their bodies as the schoolmaster did their minds; the gymnastes was the trainer of athletes for athletic competitions. This is the original distinction between the two, and though in practice their functions often overlapped, and though in Plato the terms are practically synonymous, the original distinction never entirely disappeared.

The paidotribes existed long before the gymnastes, for athletic exercises formed part of the national education long before the demand for specialised athletic training arose. From the time of Solon education was in the hands of the paidotribes and the schoolmaster.[848] In most states education was voluntary, and the paidotribai were usually private teachers, who received fees for their services. In the fourth century the fee seems to have been a mina (about £4) for the whole course.[849] Many of the paidotribai had palaestrae of their own; failing that, they must have taken their pupils to the public palaestrae and gymnasia, which they must in any case have used for such exercises as required more space than could be found in the ordinary palaestra.[850] Besides those private paidotribai who took pupils from the age of seven upwards, there were others who were paid by the state to superintend the training of the epheboi. At Teos the paidotribes received in the third century 500 drachmae a year.[851] The training of the epheboi was practical and military and had no connexion with professional athletics, and the paidotribes regularly figures in the ephebic inscriptions down to the latest times.

Thus the paidotribes had charge of boys from their seventh to their twentieth year. But the training which he gave was not of course sufficient for those who aspired to win prizes in the great games. These required special natural abilities and special practice for the development of their natural abilities; and the special practice they required was supplied by the gymnastai.[852] There was, however, nothing to prevent a successful paidotribes if he possessed the necessary skill and knowledge employing them in training athletes. It was not every one who could afford the services of a champion boxer or wrestler. Further, the paidotribes might also devote himself to medical gymnastics.[853] Herodicus of Selymbria, the founder of medical gymnastics, is said to be have been a paidotribes who suffered from ill-health, and discovered from personal experience the means of treating disease by diet and exercise. Hence the paidotribes might be also a gymnastes. But such training and such knowledge were really outside his sphere, which was that of the drill sergeant, whose duty it is to teach certain definite movements and exercises to boys of various ages. As athletics became more and more professional, and medical gymnastics developed, the difference between the paidotribes and the gymnastes increased, till in Galen and Philostratus we find the paidotribes subordinated to the gymnastes as the mere drill sergeant to the professor of physical culture. Galen compares them respectively to the cook and the physician.[854]

The gymnastes can hardly have come into existence much before the beginning of the fifth century.[855] His work consisted partly in perfecting his pupils in some particular form of athletics, partly in developing their strength and training them into proper condition. The earlier gymnastai, such as those whom we read of in Pindar and Bacchylides, devoted themselves chiefly to practical instruction. They were often themselves successful athletes, especially boxers and wrestlers, who having retired from competition took to teaching, and were doubtless richly rewarded by their patrons. Such was Melesias the trainer of thirty victors in wrestling and the pankration;[856] Iccus of Tarentum, a winner in the pentathlon at Olympia in Ol. 76, the most celebrated trainer of his day; Dromeus of Stymphalus and Pythagoras of Samos, to whom were attributed the introduction of a meat diet. These trainers, like other teachers, went wherever they could find a market. Menander of Athens trained Pytheas of Aegina to victory.[857] We cannot for a moment suppose that men like these descended to the work of the ordinary paidotribes, though, as I have suggested, the reverse must often have been the case. It was an age of science, and in the hands of gymnastai and paidotribai there arose in the middle of the fifth century a new science of gymnastic which aimed not at the performance of particular exercises but at the production of certain physical conditions (ἕξις),[858] especially the condition required for athletic success. Its professors in the fourth century are in ordinary speech called paidotribai, and Isocrates[859] describes it as a branch of the art of the paidotribes, undoubtedly because so many paidotribai professed it. The new science was closely allied to medicine. The trainer, like the doctor, required some knowledge of diet and the effects on the body of different kinds of food;[860] he required, too, some knowledge of the body itself, and the effect on it of various exercises; he required, too, to be a judge of the human animal, and to be able to tell in what form of athletics any individual had most chance of excelling, and what particular form of training he required.[861] The ideal gymnastes, according to Aristotle,[862] should know what is the ideally best condition for the ideally best man, what is the best for the average man, and what is the best for any particular man. Unfortunately the art of the gymnastes was almost from the first connected with the training of professional athletes, and the condition which they aimed at was that artificial condition required for success in some particular form of athletics. At the same time medical gymnastics was corrupted by the quackery which from the fourth century was rampant in all departments of knowledge.[863]

There were also other officials connected with the gymnasia. The xystarches was the president of one of those guilds of professional athletes which we find under the Empire. The aleiptes was properly the person who oiled and rubbed people who exercised in the gymnasia. This was part of the work of the paidotribes or the gymnastes, and it is doubtful whether there were special officials for the purpose. In Aristotle aleiptes is merely another name for gymnastes.[864] In Roman times we find slaves (_unctores_) performing this work in the public baths, and possibly these existed in the Greek gymnasia. Subordinate officials are also mentioned, the hypopaidotribes or assistant, and others who had charge of the palaestra and its contents, variously described as palaistrophylax, epimeletes, epistates. Besides these there were in Hellenistic times special instructors for special exercises, the sphairistes who taught ball-play, the akontistes and toxotes who gave instruction in the use of the javelin and the bow, and the hoplomachos who gave lessons in the use of arms.

Of the special training prescribed for athletes little is known beyond a few details as to diet which have been noticed in the earlier chapters of this book, and a few other details noticed under the special exercises with which they are connected. There were manuals of athletic training, but all are lost except the late treatise by Philostratus to which we have so often referred. With regard to athletics as a branch of education we are somewhat better informed, and it is instructive to compare the physical training given in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. with the system described by Galen in the second century A.D.

The training given in the earlier period was based on those athletic exercises which at all times formed the programme of Greek athletic meetings. To these we may add ball-play, which is enumerated by Plautus among the exercises which formed a young Greek’s training till the age of twenty.[865] These exercises were taught progressively, at first the simple movements or positions (σχήματα) separately, then combinations of these movements which involved more exertion.[866] Many of these movements admitted of being taught to classes as drill to the accompaniment of music. Such drill, especially with halteres, is sometimes represented on vases.[867] The various holds and throws of wrestling were taught in this way, and we possess on the Oxyrhynchus papyrus, to which we have already referred, a portion of such a wrestling lesson.[868] Dances could be utilised in the same way: the movements of wrestling were imitated in a dance performed by Spartan boys called the gymnopaidike[869] just as the movements of war were imitated in the Pyrrhic and other war dances. In the fourth century particular attention was given to exercises of a military character, the use of weapons of all sorts, and riding, but these exercises must have been confined chiefly to older pupils of the age of the epheboi. Proficiency in all the various exercises taught was encouraged by numerous festivals and local competitions where prizes were offered for boys of various ages. The training of teams for the torch-races and choirs for dancing competitions, though not formally a part of the education given by the paidotribes, must have afforded those who took part in them a considerable amount of healthy and agreeable exercise.

Life in this period was spent mostly in the open air, and the formal training of the palaestra was supplemented by hunting, swimming, rowing, and other forms of exercise. Cities in Greece were small, and hunting was as a rule easily obtainable. In Attica, owing to the increase of population and the spread of cultivation, game was scarce, and sport had therefore declined in Xenophon’s time; but the red-figured vases prove its popularity in the fifth century. Swimming and diving were common recreations. Every Greek could swim, and not to know how to swim was as much a sign of an uneducated person as ignorance of letters.[870] Rowing must also have been a universal accomplishment, at least among the Greeks who lived near the sea; but we know nothing of the teaching of rowing or swimming. Probably the Greek boy taught himself to swim and row or picked it up from his fellows.

Here too the element of competition came in. At Hermione we hear of a competition in diving (or perhaps swimming[871]), and also boat-races.[872] We have seen that boat-racing took place at the Isthmia and at various Athenian festivals. There was also a boat-race at the Actian festival in the time of Augustus; and Professor Percy Gardner has shown that there is a possible reference to this contest on the coins of Corcyra and Nicopolis, on which a victorious galley is sometimes represented. The coins suggest a race between galleys such as that described in the _Aeneid_, but the boats used in the Athenian races were probably not triremes, but small boats with a single bank of oars, tender-boats (ὑπηρετικά) such as always accompanied a fleet. A boat of this description is depicted on a stele in the Museum of Athens of Hellenistic or Roman period (Fig. 190). It is a long narrow boat with a pointed beak in front, and a curved aplustre at the stern, and in it there sit eight oarsmen. There is no sign of the oars. The men are naked and are sitting at ease, and bow, who is the smallest of the crew, holds a palm-branch. The number eight is of course a pure accident. There is no cox in the boat, but on the upper part of the stele are three figures standing, a draped figure in the centre, probably the gymnasiarchos who fitted out and trained the crew, on his left a naked youth bearing a palm, on his right a youth in a chlamys crowning the man in the centre. These two Professor Gardner identifies with the stroke and cox of the victorious crew.

When we come to Galen, we seem to pass from the free and open atmosphere of the playing-field and the country into the artificial air of the town gymnasium. The simple exercises of the earlier period, so inseparably bound up with the lives and habits of the people, have given place to a scientific system of physical training based on the teaching of generations of gymnastai. In his treatise on Health[873] he describes at length the exercises suited for youths between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one. He distinguishes exercises for the legs, the arms, and the trunk. He further classifies exercises into those which exert the muscles and give them tone without violent movement (τὰ εὔτονα), quick movements which promote activity (τὰ τάχεα), and violent exercises (τὰ σφόδρα). As examples of the first class he mentions digging, driving, carrying heavy weights, rope-climbing, and exercises of resistance such as holding the arms extended while another person tries to pull them down. Among quick exercises he enumerates running, sparring, the use of the korykos or punch-ball, ball-play, rolling on the ground “either alone or with others,” an exercise which seems to resemble “tackling” at football, and a variety of leg and arm movements. Many of these movements are well known in our modern physical drill. That known as ἐκπλεθρίζειν is the familiar running figure in which the runner runs in an ever-decreasing circle till he comes to the centre. Another exercise (πιτυλίζειν) consisted in marching on the toes, and at the same time swinging the arms. The leg exercises include jumping up and down, and raising the legs alternately backwards and forwards. The arm exercises are the usual dumb-bell movements performed rapidly without dumb-bells, with the hands either open or clenched. Finally, any of the exercises of the first class may become violent if practised rapidly and without interruption, and quick exercises become so if practised with weights or in heavy armour. Besides prescribing exercises Galen lays down elaborate rules for the time of exercise, and for massage both before and after exercise. The actual teaching of these exercises must have been in the hands of paidotribai, but the direction of the training and the arrangement of the exercises is, according to Galen, the work of the gymnastes, who alone has a scientific knowledge of physical training.

The details of this training are full of interest to the student of education and hygiene. There is, indeed, little in our modern systems of physical education which he will not find anticipated in Greek medical writings. We do not know how far Galen’s principles were ever carried into practice, though we may suspect that it was only in the case of individuals, and that they had little influence on the nation. But of this we may be certain, that physical training did not, and could not, do for Galen’s contemporaries what athletics had done for their ancestors. Nor can physical training ever take the place of our own games. For it lacks the element of competition and cannot inspire. There is no antagonism between the two. Both are valuable, but their spheres are different. Physical training is a branch of education—a most important branch, and one hitherto shamefully neglected in England—and it must therefore be carried out under discipline: it is a matter of compulsion. Athletics and games are, or ought to be, a matter of free choice, and compulsion tends to kill the spirit of joy which is their essence. Physical training develops the body and imparts habits of discipline, but it cannot impart those still higher qualities, courage, endurance, self-control, courtesy, qualities which are developed by our own games, or by such manly sports as boxing and wrestling when conducted in the true spirit of friendly rivalry: it cannot teach boys “to play the game” in the battle of life; it could never have inspired the poetry of Pindar, or the art of Myron.

Footnote 795:

_Od._ iv. 605.

Footnote 796:

Hdt. vi. 126. Cp. Eur. _Andromache_, 599.

Footnote 797:

Eur. _Hipp._ 229; _Hec._ 207.

Footnote 798:

Paus. v. 15, 8; vi. 21, 2.

Footnote 799:

Aristoph. _Av._ 141; Antiphon, _Tetr._ ii.

Footnote 800:

_Axioch._ 366 C, 367 A.

Footnote 801:

Xen. _Rep. Ath._ 2, 10.

Footnote 802:

_E.g._ Taureas (Plato, _Charm._ 153), Timagetus (Theocrit. ii. 8), Sibyrtius (Plut. _Alcib._ 3), Hippocrates (Plut. _Vit. dec. or._ 837), Timeas and Antigonus in second century (_I.G._ ii. 444, 445, 446). Cp. Staseas at Delos (_B.C.H._, 1891, p. 255).

Footnote 803:

M. Fougères (Dar.-Sagl., _s.v._ “Gymnasium”) considers the earliest gymnasium to be that of Messene, which he identifies with the colonnade surrounding the sphendone of what is usually considered to be the stadium. The identification and the date of the building must be regarded as very doubtful in the absence of more systematic excavation.

Footnote 804:

ii. 10.

Footnote 805:

Plato, _Euthydemus_.

Footnote 806:

_Phaedr._ 227 A.

Footnote 807:

_Theaetet._ 144 C; Aristoph. _Nub._ 1005.

Footnote 808:

Gerh. _A. V._ 272, and _supra_, Figs. 63, 64.

Footnote 809:

Gerh. _A. V._ 272, 294.

Footnote 810:

Hartwig, _Meisterschal._ liii.; Freeman, _Schools of Hellas_, Pl. x.

Footnote 811:

The hare was frequently offered as a present. Gerh. _A. V._ 275, 276, 280, 290.

Footnote 812:

Demosth. _in Timocr._ 114.

Footnote 813:

Plato, _Theaet._ 144 C.

Footnote 814:

_Mus. Greg._ i. 37: Schreiber, _Atlas_, xxiii. 9.

Footnote 815:

Helbig, _Führer_, p. 388.

Footnote 816:

Hdt. iv. 75; Aristoph. _Eq._ 1060; _Nub._ 835, 991, 1045.

Footnote 817:

Plato, _Legg._ vi. 761.

Footnote 818:

Roulez, _Vases peints du Musée de Leyde_, Pl. 19. A similar scene in a woman’s bath occurs on a b.-f. amphora in Berlin 1843. Vide Schreiber, _Atlas_, xxi. 9, lvii. 4.

Footnote 819:

Aristoph. _Ran._ 710.

Footnote 820:

Tischbein, i. 58; Schreiber, _Atlas_, xxiii. 3.

Footnote 821:

Dar.-Sagl., Fig. 747; Schreiber, _Atlas_, lvii. 5.

Footnote 822:

Homolle, _B.C.H._, 1899, pp. 560 ff.

Footnote 823:

The purchase of a pick (σκαφεῖον) and rollers (τροχιλείαι) for the palaestra is mentioned in the Delian accounts for 279 B.C., _B.C.H._, 1890, p. 397, ll. 98, 99; cp. p. 488 note 2, for similar purchases in other years.

Footnote 824:

Similarly in _Ath. Mitth._ v. 232 τὸ πυριατήριον καὶ τὸ κόνισμα; Lebas Waddington, _Inscr. As. Min._ 1112 λουτρῶνα καί κόνισμα. The open court for exercise was an essential part of every bath. The κόνισμα must not be confused with the konisterion or powdering-room of Vitruvius.

Footnote 825:

Plato, _Theaet._ 146 A, and Schol. on the same. The game of bouncing the ball on the ground was called ἀπόρραξις.

Footnote 826:

_Char._ xxi. αὐλίδιον παλαιστριαῖον κόνιν ἔχον καὶ σφαιριστήριον. This palaestra he lends to philosophers, sophists, fencing-masters (ὁπλόμαχοι) and musicians for their displays, at which he will himself appear on the scene rather late in order that the spectators may say one to another, “This is the owner of the palaestra.”

Footnote 827:

Athen. i. 34, p. 19 A.

Footnote 828:

_Ol._ Text. ii. pp. 113, 127.

Footnote 829:

Overbeck, _Pompeii_, 4th Ed., p. 219.

Footnote 830:

For the sake of uniformity I have kept the Greek spelling of the names of different rooms instead of the Latin forms actually used in Vitruvius.

Footnote 831:

For references to the numerous inscriptions connected with the provision of oil _vide_ Dar.-Sagl., _s.vv._ “Gymnasiarchia,” p. 1682, “Gymnasium,” p. 1689.

Footnote 832:

In inscriptions we find mention of a special room called ἀλειπτήριον, which is sometimes used as synonymous with palaestra or gymnasium, just as οἱ ἀλειφόμεινοι is equivalent to οἱ γυμναζόμενοι. Vide _Hermes_, vii. 42; _C.I.G._ 2782, l. 25; _B.C.H._ xii. p. 326.

Footnote 833:

Phil. _Gym._ 58. I am pleased to find the explanation of ξηραλοιφεῖν given above, which had occurred to me independently, anticipated and confirmed by Jüthner in his recent edition of Philostratus. The word occurs in a decree of Solon quoted by Aeschines. Galen defines it as rubbing with pure oil as opposed to χυτλοῦσθαι, rubbing with oil mixed with water. But this distinction can hardly be ascribed to Solon or to the Spartans. The latter appear to have used a primitive kind of sweating-bath in the open air (Strabo, iii. 3, 6), and the rubbing connected with such a bath might well be described as ξηραλοιφεῖν in contrast with the rubbing usual in other parts of Greece, which was associated with bathing or washing in water. Jüthner, pp. 181, 182.

Footnote 834:

Lucian, _Anachars._ 2, 29.

Footnote 835:

Philostr. _Gym._ 56.

Footnote 836:

_Priene_, pp. 265 ff.

Footnote 837:

_Priene Inschriften_, 112. The authors date the inscription after 84 B.C.

Footnote 838:

_Ath. Mitth._ xxix. pp. 121 ff., xxxii. pp. 190 ff., xxxiii. pp. 327 ff.

Footnote 839:

_Op. cit._ xxix. p. 158.

Footnote 840:

_Op. cit._ xxxii. p. 273, 10.

Footnote 841:

_Op. cit._ xxxii. p. 257, 8.

Footnote 842:

For the Gymnasiarchia _vide_ the article by G. Glotz in Dar.-Sagl., where a full bibliography of the subject and copious references to inscriptions are given. For the Gymnasiarchia at Athens _vide_ also Freeman’s _Schools of Hellas_, p. 155.

Footnote 843:

Ditt. _Syll._ 2nd Ed., 522.

Footnote 844:

_I. G._ xiv. 256.

Footnote 845:

Ditt. _Syll._ 2nd Ed., 523.

Footnote 846:

Th. Reinach, _Rec. des études gr._ vi. p. 164, n.

Footnote 847:

_I. G._ xiv. 422?

Footnote 848:

Aeschines _in Timarch._ 10; Aristoph. _Nub._ 973; _Eq._ 1238.

Footnote 849:

Athen. 584 C.

Footnote 850:

Antiphon. _Tetr._ ii.

Footnote 851:

Ditt. _Syll._ 2nd Ed., 523.

Footnote 852:

Isocr. Περὶ ἀντιδόσεως, 181-185.

Footnote 853:

Plato, _Rep._ 406.

Footnote 854:

Philostr. _Gym._ 14; Galen, _De San._ ii. 86, 90.

Footnote 855:

The word first occurs in Xenophon, _Mem._ ii. 1, 20. But the fact that it does not occur in literature earlier is no proof that it was not in use; for the cognate words γυμνάζομαι and γυμνάσιον were in use at a much earlier date.

Footnote 856:

Pindar, _Ol._ viii.; _Nem._ iv., vi.

Footnote 857:

Pindar, _Nem._ v.

Footnote 858:

Xenophon, _Mem._ _l.c._; Aristotle, _Pol._ 1338 b.

Footnote 859:

_l.c._

Footnote 860:

Plato, _Protag._ 313 E.

Footnote 861:

Plato, _De virtute_, 378 E.; _Amator._ 134 E.

Footnote 862:

_Pol._ 1288 b.

Footnote 863:

The account of the paidotribes and gymnastes was written before I had read Jüthner’s learned discussion of the subject in the introduction to his _Philostratus_, but I see no reason to alter my views. Jüthner regards the gymnastes as from the first “the professor of physical culture,” but himself inadvertently applies the term to Pindar’s Melesias (p. 22), who was merely a teacher of boxing. Further Jüthner seems to me vastly to overrate the value of the medical gymnastics and the science of health based on the teaching of Herodicus of Selymbria.

Footnote 864:

_Nic. Eth._ ii. 6, 7.

Footnote 865:

_Bacch._ iii. 3, 24.

Footnote 866:

Isocrates, _l.c._

Footnote 867:

Cp. Fig. 65.

Footnote 868:

_Supra_, p. 374.

Footnote 869:

Athen. 631 B.

Footnote 870:

Plato, _Legg._ 689 D.

Footnote 871:

Paus. ii. 35, 1.

Footnote 872:

_Vide_ three papers in the _J.H.S._ by Prof. Percy Gardner, vol. ii. p. 90 and p. 315, vol. xi. p. 146.

Footnote 873:

_De San. Tu._ ii. 8-11. Oribasius, vi. 14.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

_N.B._—No references are given to articles or sections on athletics or athletic festivals in the following books of reference:—

BAUMEISTER, A. Denkmäler des klassischen Altertums.

DAREMBERG ET SAGLIO. Dictionnaire des antiquités.

FRAZER, J. G. Pausanias.

IWAN VON MÜLLER. Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft.

PAULY-WISSOWA. Real-Encyclopädie.

SCHREIBER-ANDERSON. Atlas of Classical Antiquities.

SMITH, W. Dictionary of Antiquities.

etc. etc.

A. ATHLETIC FESTIVALS

1. OLYMPIA.—(_a_) _General_

Olympia. Die Ergebnisse der von dem deutschen Reich veranstalteten Ausgrabung. Edd. E. Curtius and F. Adler. Berlin, 1892-1897.

BÖTTICHER, A. Olympia: das Fest und seine Stätte. 2nd edition. Berlin, 1866.

FLASH, A. Olympia, in Baumeister’s Denkmäler, ii. p. 1053. Munich and Leipsic, 1887.

GARDNER, P. Olympia, in New Chapters in Greek History. London, 1892. On the Ancient Olympic Games, in the Official Handbook of the Olympic Games. London, 1908.

HACHTMANN, K. Olympia u. seine Festspiele. Gütersloh, 1899.

KRAUSE, J. H. Olympia. Vienna, 1838.

S. P. LAMBROS AND N. G. POLITIS. Οἱ Ὀλυμπιακοὶ ἀγῶνες. Athens, 1896.

LEONARDOS, B. Ὀλυμπία. Athens, 1901.

WEST, G. A Dissertation on the Olympick Games, in his translation of The Odes of Pindar. London, 1753.

(_b_) _Chronology and Lists of Victors_

S. JULII AFRICANI Ὀλυμπιάδων ἀναγραφή (Eusebii Chronic. (Schoene), i. 193) rec. J. Rutgers. Leyden, 1862.

DIEHL, C. Olympische Sieger. _Hermes_, xxxvi. p. 71.

FÖRSTER, H. Sieger in den olympischen Spielen. 2 parts. Zwickau, 1891, 1892.

GUTTMANN, W. De Olympionicis apud Minae Philostratum. Breslau, 1865.

HYDE, W. De Olympionicarum statuis a Pausania commemoratis. Halle, 1903.

KÖRTE, A. Die Entstehung der Olympionikenliste. _Hermes_, xxxix. p. 224.

MAHAFFY, J. P. On the Authenticity of the Olympic Register. _J.H.S._ ii. 164.

ROBERT, C. Die Ordnung der olympischen Spiele und die Sieger der 75-83 Olympiade. _Hermes_, xxxv., 1900. p. 141.

(_c_) _Miscellaneous_

DISSEN, L. De ordine certaminum Olympicorum. Göttingen, 1841.

DÖRFELD, W. Alter des Heiligtums von Olympia. _Ath. Mitth._ xxxi. p. 205. Tiryns, Olympia, Pylos. _Ib._ xxxii. p. 1. Pisa bei Olympia. _Ib._ xxxiii. p. 318. Olympia in prähistorischer Zeit. _Ib._ p. 185.

DYER, L. Olympian Treasuries and Treasuries in General. _J.H.S._ xxv. p. 294. Details of Olympian Treasuries. _Ib._ xxvi. p. 46. The Olympian Theatron and the Battle of Olympia. _Ib._ xxviii. p. 250. The Olympian Council-House and Council. _Harvard Studies in Classical Philology_, xix. p. 1.

FÖRSTER, H. De Hellanodicis Olympicis. Leipsic, 1879.

HERMANN, G. De Hippodromo Olympico. Leipsic, 1839.

HOLWERDA, J. Olympische Studien. _Arch. Zeit._, 1880, pp. 169-172. (1) Die Folgenreihe der Festspiele. (2) Ἔφεδρος and ἐφεδρεία.

MIE, F. Quaestiones agonisticae, imprimis ad Olympia pertinentes. Rostock, 1888.

MOMMSEN, A. Über die Zeit der Olympien. Leipsic, 1891.

PUCHSTEIN, O. Altar des olympischen Zeus. _Jahrb._, 1896, p. 53.

ROBERT, C. Sosipolis in Olympia. _Ath. Mitth._, xviii. p. 37.

SCHERER, C. De Olympionicarum statuis. Göttingen, 1885.

SCHÖNE, H. Neue Angaben über den Hippodrom zu Olympia. _Jahrb._, 1897, p. 150.

WENIGER, L. Das Hoch Fest des Zeus in Olympia. _Klio_, 1904, p. 125; 1905, pp. 1, 184. Olympische Forschungen. _Ib._, 1906, pp. 1, 259; 1907, p. 145; 1909, p. 291.

WERNICKE, K. Olympische Beiträge. _Jahrb._, 1894, pp. 88, 127, 191; 1897, p. 169. (1) Altäre, (2) Heraion, (3) Proedria u. Hellanodikeon, (4) Gymnasien, (5) Hippodrom, (6) Ostgiebel des Zeustempels.

II. THE PANHELLENIC FESTIVALS

CORSINI, E. Dissertationes IV. agonisticae quibus Olympiorum, Pythiorum, Nemeorum atque Isthmiorum tempus inquiritur ac demonstratur. Florence, 1747.

KRAUSE, J. H. Die Pythien, Nemeen und Isthmien. Leipsic, 1841.

HOMOLLE, T. Les Fouilles de Delphes. Paris, _in progress_.

DROYSEN, J. G. Die Festzeit der Nemeen. _Hermes_, xiv., 1879, p. 1.

BURY, J. B. Pindar. Nemean Odes. (_Vide_ Appendix.) London, 1890.

JEBB, SIR RICHARD C. Bacchylides. (_Vide_ Introduction.) Cambridge, 1905.

MONCEAUX, P. Fouilles et recherches archéologiques au sanctuaire des jeux isthmiques. _Gazette archéologique_, 1884, ix. pp. 273-285, 352-365; 1885, x. pp. 205-214, 402-412.

POMTOW. Studien zu den Weihgeschenken und der Topographie von Delphi. ATH. MITTH. xxxi. p. 437.

UNGER, G. T. Die Zeit der nemeischen Spiele. _Philologus_, xxxiv., 1874, pp. 50-64. Die Winter Nemeen. _Ib._ xxxvii., 1877, pp. 524-566. Die Isthmien und Hyacinthien. _Ib._ xxxvii., 1877, p. 1.

VILLOISON. Recherches historiques sur les jeux néméens. (Hist. de l’Acad. des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres, xxxviii. p. 29.)

III. THE PANATHENAEA

BÖCKH, A. De ludis Panathenaicis. Berlin, 1832.

MICHAELIS, A. Der Parthenon. Leipsic, 1871.

MOMMSEN, A. Feste der Stadt Athen. Leipsic, 1898.

SMITH, A. H. Sculptures of the Parthenon (Part of British Museum Catalogue of Sculpture).

B. GREEK ATHLETICS

(_a_) GENERAL

KRAUSE, J. H. Die Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen. Leipsic, 1841.

FABRI, P. Agonisticon. Lugduni, 1592.

GRASBERGER, L. Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Altertum. Würzburg, 1864.

JAEGER, O. Die Gymnastik der Hellenen. Stuttgart, 1878.

MERCURIALIS. De arte gymnastica. Venetiis, 1573.

MEURSII, J. De ludis Graecorum. Elzevir, 1662.

PACIAUDI, P. M. De athletarum κυβιστήσει in palaestra Graecorum. Rome, 1756.

PHILOSTRATUS. For full Bibliography of the _Gymnastike_, _vide_ Jüthner’s edition, p. 84.

DAREMBERG, CH. Philostrate. Traité sur la gynmastique. Paris, 1858.

KAYSER, G. L. Philostratei libri de Gymnastica quae supersunt. Heidelberg, 1840. Flavii Philostrati opera. Leipsic, 1870.

JÜTHNER, JULIUS. Philostratos über Gymnastik. Leipsic and Berlin, 1909.

(_b_) SPECIAL

BURETTE, M. In Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 1736. Mémoire pour servir à l’histoire de la sphéristique ou de la paume des anciens, i. p. 153. Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire des athlètes, i. pp. 211, 237, 258. Mémoire pour servir à l’histoire de la lutte des anciens, iii. p. 228. Mémoire pour servir à l’histoire du pugilat des anciens, iii. p. 255. Mémoire pour servir à l’histoire de la course, iii. p. 280. Dissertation sur ce qu’on appelle pentathle, iii. p. 318. Dissertation sur l’exercice du disque ou palet, iii. p. 330.

GARDINER, E. N. The Method of deciding the Pentathlon. _J.H.S._ xxiii. p. 54. Notes on the Greek Foot-race. _Ib._ xxiii. p. 261. Phayllus and his Record Jump. _Ib._ xxiv. p. 70. Further Notes on the Greek Jump. _Ib._ xxiv. p. 179. Wrestling, I., II. _Ib._ xxv. pp. 14, 263. The Pankration and Wrestling. _Ib._ xxvi. p. 4. Throwing the Diskos. _Ib._ xxvii. p. 1. Throwing the Javelin. _Ib._ xxvii. p. 249.

JÜTHNER, JULIUS. Antike Turngeräthe. (Halteres, Diskos, Akontion, Himantes.) Vienna, 1896. Also in Pauly-Wissowa, _passim_.

_Boxing_

FABRETTI. Columna Trajani, p. 260. Rome, 1683.

FROST, K. T. Greek Boxing. _J.H.S._ xxvi. p. 213.

HÜLSEN. Il Cesto dei pugili antiqui. _Röm. Mitth._ iv. 175.

_The Diskos_

CHRYSSAPHIS, J. E. Ἡ Ἐλληνικὴ δισκοβολία in “Bulletin du comité des jeux olympiques,” No. 3, p. 59. Athens, 1906.

KIETZ, G. Der Diskoswurf bei der Griechen. Agonistische Studien, i. Munich, 1892.

PERNICE, E. Zum Diskoswurf. _Jahrb._, 1908, p. 95.

E. R. The Diskos Thrower. _Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York_, 1908, iii. 2, p. 31.

ROBERTSON, G. S. On Throwing the Discus, in the “Official Handbook of the Olympic Games.” London, 1908.

SIX. Vases polychromes sur fond noir. Appendice au sujet du discobole. _Gaz. Arch._, 1888, 291.

_The Hippodrome_, etc.

HELBIG, W. Les Hippeis athéniens. Paris, 1902.

MARTIN, A. Les Cavaliers athéniens. Paris, 1886. Also in Dar.-Sagl., _s.v._ Hippodrome.

POLLACK, E. Hippodromica. Leipsic, 1890.

_The Javelin and the Amentum_

BERTRAND, A. L’Amentum et la cateia sur line plaque de ceinture en bronze. _Revue arch._, 1884, 104 f.

KÖCHLY. Opuscula, ii. 351 ff.

KRAUSE, F. Schleudervorrichtungen für Wurfwaffen. _Internationales Archiv._ Leyden, 1902, pp. 121 ff.

MÉRIMÉE, P. _Revue arch._, 1860, 2nd Ed., 210 f.

_The Jump_

KÜPPERS. _Arch. Anz._, 1900, 104 ff.

PINDER, E. _Arch. Anz._, 1864, 230 f.

ROULEZ, M. Mémoire sur une coupe de Vulci. Brussels, 1842.

_The Race in Armour_

HAUSER. Zur Tübinger Bronze, i., ii. _Jahrb._ 2, 1887, p. 95; 1895, p. 182.

DE RIDDER, A. L’Hoplitodrome de Tübingen. _B.C.H._, 1897, p. 211.

_Wrestling Groups_

FÖRSTER. _Jahrb._, 1898, p. 178; 1901, pp. 49-51.

PERCLÜZET. _Rev. arch._, 1903, sér. 1, pp. 396-397.

_The Pentathlon_

BLÜMNER. In Baumeister’s Denkmäler, i. p. 1592.

BÖCKH, A. Adnotationes criticae, in his edition of Pindar, 1811. Über die kritische Behandlung der pindarischen Gedichte. _Abhandlungen d. Berl. Akad._, 1822-1823, p. 391.

FABER, MARTIN. Zum Fünfkampf der Hellenen. _Philologus_, 1891 (L), p. 469.

FEDDE, F. Der Fünfkampf der Hellenen. Breslau, 1888. Über den Fünfkampf d. Hell. Leipsic, 1889.

FENNELL, C. A. M. The Pentathlon, in his edition of Pindar’s Nemean and Isthmian Odes. Cambridge Press, 1883.

GARDNER, P. The Pentathlon. _J.H.S._ i. p. 210.

HAGGENMÜLLER. Die Aufeinanderfolge der Kämpfe im Pentathlon. Berlin, 1892.

HEINRICH, K. E. Über das Pentathlon der Griechen. Würzburg, 1892.

HERMANN, G. Commentationes de metris Pindari. Ed. Heyne, iii. 225. De Sogenis Aeginetae victoria quinquertii. Lips., 1822.

HOLWERDA. Zum Pentathlon. _Arch. Zeit._, 1881, pp. 205-216.

LEGRAND, PH. E. In Dar.-Sagl., _s.v._ Quinquertium. 1907.

MARQUARDT, H. Zum Pentathlon der Griechen. Güstrow, 1886.

MYERS, E. The Pentathlon. _J.H.S._ ii. p. 217.

PHILIPP, G. F. De Pentathlo. Berlin, 1827.

PINDER, E. Über den Fünfkampf der Hellenen. Berlin, 1867.

(_c_) MISCELLANEOUS

BASIADES, C. De vet. Graecorum gymnastice. Berlin, 1858.

BECKER, W. A. Charikles. Leipsic, 1840.

BINTZ, J. Die Gymnastike d. Hellenen. Gütersloh, 1878.

EGGER, J. B. Begriff der Gymnastik bei den alten Philosophen und Medizinern. Freiburg (Switz.), 1903.

FREEMAN, K. J. Schools of Hellas. Macmillan & Co., 1907.

GARDNER, P. Boat-races among the Greeks. _J.H.S._, ii. p. 90. Boat-races at Athens. _Ib._ p. 315. A Stele commemorating a Victory in a Boat-race. _Ib._ xi. p. 146.

GIRARD, P. L’Éducation athénienne. Paris, 1889.

GUTCH, C. The Greek Games. Cambridge, 1900.

JOUBERT, L. De gymnasiis et generibus exercitationum apud antiquos. Sallengre Thes., i.

JÜTHNER, J. Gymnastisches in Philostrat’s Eikones. Eranos Vindob. p. 310. Vienna, 1893.

LINDEMANN, F. De utilitate artis gymnasticae apud Graecos. Zitt., 1841.

MIE, F. Über die διὰ πάντων καὶ ὁ ἐπινίκιος in agonistischen Inschriften. _Ath. Mitth._ xxxiv. p. 1.

PETERSEN, CHR. Das Gymnasium der Griechen. Hamburg, 1858.

POLKE. Artis gymnasticae apud Graecos origo atque indoles. Gleiw., 1851.

RICHTER, W. Die Spiele der Griechen und Römer. Leipsic, 1840.

STALLBAUM, G. De vet. gymnasiorum disciplina et institutione. Leipsic, 1856, 1858.

TARBELL, F. B. The Palm of Victory. _Classical Philology_, iii. p. 264.

WILKINS, A. S. Roman Education. Cambridge Press, 1905.

P. WOLTERS. Zu griechischen Agonen. Würzburg, 1901.

C. ATHLETIC ART

_N.B._—The following section lays no claim to completeness. The references are as a rule too scattered and fragmentary to be included in a bibliography. Much information will be found in all histories and handbooks of athletic art.

_Coins (for equestrian types)_

HILL, G. F. Historical Greek Coins. London, 1906.

EVANS, A. The Horsemen of Tarentum. London, 1889.

_Mosaics_

LUCAS, HANS. Athleten-Typen. _Jahrb._ xix., 1904, pp. 127-136.

SECCHI, P. Musaico antoniniano.

_Sculpture_

FURTWÄNGLER, A. Die Bedeutung der Gymnastik in der griechischen Kunst. Leipsic, 1905.

GARDNER, P. The Apoxyomenos of Lysippus. _J.H.S._ xxv. p. 234.

KALKMANN, A. Die Statue von Subiaco. _Jahrb._, 1895, p. 46.

PATER, WALTER. The Age of Athletic Prizemen, in Greek Studies. London, 1895.

WALDSTEIN, C. Pythagoras of Rhegium and the Early Athletic Statues. _J.H.S._ i. p. 168; ii. p. 332.

_Vases_

References to the most important Athletic vases will be found in our list of illustrations. The following list is confined to Panathenaic vases.

BÖCKH, A. De vasorum Panathenaicorum generibus. Berlin, 1831.

DICKINS, G. Panathenaic Amphorae found at Sparta. _B.S.A._ xiii. p. 150.

HEERMANCE, T. W. Fragment of dated Panathenaic Amphora. _Amer. Journ. Archaeology_, 1896, p. 331.

HEINZE, F. Eine panathenäische Amphore des akademischen Kunstmuseums zu Bonn. Bonner Studien R. Kekulé gewidmet. Berlin, 1890, p. 240.

HOPPIN, J. C. A Panathenaic Amphora. _Amer. Journ. Archaeology_, 1906, p. 385.

POTTIER, E. Amphora panathénaïque. _B.C.H._ vi. p. 168.

ROBINSON, D. M. Fragment of Panathenaic Amphora. _Amer. Journ. of Philology_, 1908, p. 47.

SMITH, SIR C. Panathenaic Amphorae. _B.S.A._ iii. p. 182.

STEPHANI. Compte rendu, 1876, p. 18.

TARBELL, F. B. Fragment of a dated Panathenaic Amphora. _Cl. Review_, 1900, p. 474.

WALTERS, H. B. History of Ancient Pottery, ii. p. 388.

WITTE, J. DE. Annali dell’ Instituto, 1877, p. 294; 1878, p. 276.

INDEX

Academea at Athens, 468

Achaeans, athletic character of, 8, 11

Acrobats, in Homer, 25; on Panathenaic vase, 243

Aeginetan pediments, physical type of, 92

Aeginetan successes, 92, 216, 226

Aepytus of Elis, rides his father’s horse, 463

Aezani, stadium, 266

Africanus compiles Olympic register, 50, 192

Age, classification by, 271

Agesidamus of Locri Epizephyrii, boxer, 110

Ageus of Argos, dolichodromos, 201, 285

Agias, pankratiast, statue of, at Delphi, 124, 212

Aglaus of Athens, runner, 273

Agonothetes, 150

Akontistes, 150, 506

Alcibiades, victories at Olympia, 132; at Isthmia, 225; his feast at Olympia, 207; wrestling, 445

Alcimedon of Aegina, wrestler, 375

Alcimidas of Aegina, wrestler, 375

Alcmaeon of Athens, 60

Aleiptes, 477, 506

Alexander, son of Amyntas, at Olympia, 47, 80

Alexander the Great, his contempt for athletics, 127, 154; respect for Olympia, 154

Alexandria, victories at Olympia, 155

Alexandrini, guild of, 175

Amentum, 339 ff.

Amphiaraus vase, 29, 385, 463

Amphictionies, in Peloponnese, 41

Anaxilas of Rhegium, 71, 207

Anaximenes, statue of, at Olympia, 140

Anolympiads, 45

Antiochus, pankratiast, Arcadian ambassador to Persia, 143

Antipater of Miletus, boxer, refuses bribe, 134

Antiphon, 339, 354

Anystis, courier, 181

Aphesis, of stadium, 253, 259, 265, 273; of hippodrome, 453

Aphetes, or katapaltaphetes, 150

Aphrodisias, stadium, 260

Apobates, 71, 237, 461

Apollo, statues of, 84, 88 ff.

Apollonius, boxer, disqualified at Olympia, 201

Apollonius Rhodius, description of boxing, 430

Apoxyomenos, 124, 482

Aratus of Sicyon, 157, 160

Arcesilas of Cyrene, 210

Archelaus of Macedon, founds Olympia at Dium, 152

Archilochus of Paros, hymn of, 56, 207

Argeius of Ceos, boxer, 216, 225, 426

Argive wrestlers, 393, 401

Argos, and Olympia, 55; and Nemean games, 224

Aristomenes of Aegina, wrestler, 375

Ariston, P. Cornelius, pankratiast, 178, 375

Aristonicus of Carystus, Alexander’s sphairistes, 485

Aristophanes, on decline of athletics, 131

Aristotle, his opinion on athletics, 127; on the pentathlon, 136; edits list of Olympionicae, 50, and Pythionicae, 213; statue of, at Olympia, 140

Armed combat. _Vide_ Hoplomachia

Armed race. _Vide_ Foot-race

Arrhichion of Phigalia, pankratiast, 70, 201, 438, 443, 450

Asclepiades, Publius, inscribed diskos of, 183, 316

Asinius Quadratus, C., Olympic chronology, 182

Aspendus, coins of, 103, 373, 385, 441

Astylus of Croton, runner, proclaimed as a Syracusan, 76, 82, 134

Atarbus, monument of, 240

Athenian festivals, 227 ff.; Panathenaea, 227; Heraclea, 228; Eleusinia, 228; Oschophoria, 228; Thesea, 228, 247; Epitaphia, 228; Dionysia, 229; Aiantea, 229; Olympia, 229; Bendidea, 229; Diisoteria, 229

Athens, successes at Olympia, 73; athletic training at, 108; decline of athletics, 131; training of epheboi, 149; gladiatorial shows at, 172; Panathenaic stadium, 263; popularity of foot-race and pankration, 272; gymnasia and palaestrae, 149, 468 ff.

Athletes, honours and rewards of, 77; profits of, 129; transfer of, 134

Athletic art, 84, 86 ff., 103. _Vide_ Coins, Gems, Sculpture

Athletics, difference between Greek and modern, 3, 5; distinguish Greek from barbarian, 47, 107

Athletics and athletic games, 3; and physical training, 186, 510

Athletics, Greek, practical character of, 1; part of education, 2; absence of records, 2; connexion with religion, 3; political importance of, 4; danger of excess in, 4; vitality of, 5; importance attached to style, 2, 114; influence of, upon art, 86; influence of art upon, 114

Athletics, history of Greek— Northern origin of athletics, 8; pre-Achaeans unathletic, 9; sport in Homer, 11 ff.; sport aristocratic, 14, 25 Rise of athletic festival, 26 ff.; early records of Olympia, 54; superiority of Sparta, seventh century, 56; athletics in Sicily and Italy, 58; sport national and democratic, 60 Organization of athletics, sixth century, 61; profits and rewards of, 76; protest of Xenophanes against over-athleticism, 78; growth of competition, 79; athletic training, 81; decline of Sparta, 81; age of strong men, 82 Athletic ideal of fifth century, 86 ff.; influence of Persian wars, 107; influence of art on athletics, 114 Growth of specialization 440-338 B.C., 124 ff.; athletic diet, 125; artificial training, 126; rise of medical gymnastics, 129; lucrativeness of athletics, 129; professionalism, 131; corruption, 134; brutalization of sport, 135 The professional strong man, 146; age of athletic buildings, 148; military training of epheboi, 149; athletic revival in Asia and Egypt, 155; decline of Italy and Sicily, 160 Roman prejudice against athletics, 163; brutalizing influence of Rome, 172; increase of corruption, 174; athletic guilds, 174; artificial revival of athletics under Empire, 178; age of records, 181; sports of Sparta, 183; Galen condemns athletics, 188; Philostratus on the decline of athletics, 190; artificiality of training, 191

Aurelius Asclepiades, M., periodoneikes, 178

Automedes of Phlius, pentathlete, 368

Bacchylides, 105, 109, 195, 200, 272

Balbis, 252, 318 ff.

Ball-play in Homer, 24; at Sparta, 185; Galen’s treatise on, 187; Alexander fond of, 485; rooms for, 485

Bater, 252, 297

Bathing arrangements in gymnasium, 479 ff.

Bathroom at Delphi, 486; at Priene, 495

Beauty, Greek love of, 88

Belistiche, 159, 462

Beni-Hassan, wrestling scenes at, 9, 372

Boat-races, 221, 229, 240, 508

Bolas, 314

Boxing— In Crete, 9, 10, 403; in Homer, 17, 417; in Eastern Aegean, 33; at Priene (ἐν εἵμασι), 496; popularity of, 131, 402 Himantes, 402; sphairai, 406, 136; himantes oxeis, 409; caestus, 411; represented on bronze situlae, 412 History of, in Greece, 414; conditions of, 415; position of boxer, 419 Use of left hand, 422; use of right hand, 423; the crushed ear, 425; foot-work, 425; defect of style, 427 Amycus and Polydeuces in Theocritus, 428; in Apollonius Rhodius, 430; Dares and Entellus in Vergil, 431, 172; laws of, 432 Practice for, 433

Boys, competitions for, 80; pankration for, 161; Claudian, Augustan, 175; Isthmian, Pythian, 271

Bull-baiting at Cnossus, 10

Burgon vase, 242, 457

Bybon, inscription of, on weight, 83

Bye, importance of, 370, 374

Caestus, 136, 172. _Vide_ Boxing

Callippus of Athens, pentathlete, bribes opponents, 134, 136

Caprus of Elis, pankratiast, 146

Carrhotus, charioteer of Arcesilas, 463

Ceos, athletic successes of, 107, 216, 226; list of victors, 216; ephebic inscription, 151, 502

Chariot, four-horse and two-horse, 457

Charioteer, 111, 463; dress of, 459, 460

Chariot-race, in Homer, 15; in funeral games, 31, 32; antiquity of, at Olympia, 40, 56; tyrants compete in, 59; popularity of, in Sicily, 132, 451; in Sparta, 133; in Macedon, 161; discontinuance of, at Olympia, 165; at Pythia, 211; at Isthmia, 221; at Nemea, 225; at Athens, 235 ff.; women compete in, 462; states compete in, 463; danger of, 463. _Vide_ also Hippodrome

Chilon, death of, at Olympia, 73

Chionis of Sparta, runner, 58, 70

Chios, girls and men wrestle, 387

Chromius of Aetna, chariot, 114, 225

Cimon of Athens, 73, 468

Cirrus, 377

Claudius Rufus, T., pankratiast, decree in honour of, 115

Cleisthenes of Sicyon, 60, 63, 66, 210

Cleitomachus of Thebes, boxer, wrestler, pankratiast, 146, 199; epigram on, 377

Cleitostratus of Rhodes, wrestler, 401

Clothes, penalty for stealing, in gymnasium, 477; provision for care of, 500

Cnossus, bull-baiting at, 9; dancing and boxing, 10

Coins— Athletic types on, 103; diskobolos (Cos), 330; wrestlers (Aspendus, Alexandria, Heraclea, Syracuse, Tarentum), 372, 373, 385, 390 Equestrian types on coins of Italy and Sicily, 451; mule car (Rhegium, Messana), 460; torch-race, apobates (Tarentum), 461; chariot (Catana), 465; (Syracuse, Agrigentum), 465; chariot and horse on coins of Macedon, 459 The Zeus of Pheidias (Elis), 178; nymph Olympia and Victory (Elis), 194; prize table (Delphi), 214; crown (Delphi), 214; (Corinth), 222; (Argos), 224

Colotes, prize-table of, 121

Colts, races for, 161; judging, 204, 461

Competition, Greek love of, 3

Coroebus of Elis, first Olympic victor, 50, 54

Corruption in athletics, 134, 148, 174, 218

Cretans excel as runners, 284

Creugas and Damoxenus at Nemea, 421, 432

Croton, victories of, 58, 82, 284; tries to rival Olympia, 82

Cryptoporticus, 494, 498

Cylon of Athens, 71, 73

Cynisca, 133, 462

Cynosarges, 149, 468

Cypselus, chest of, 30, 60

Damagetus of Sparta, boxer, 73

Damaretus of Heraea, hoplitodromos, statue of, 70

Damaretus, king of Sparta, chariot-race, 133

Damiscus of Messene, boy runner, 271

Damonon, inscription, 133, 284, 151, 463

Damostratus, wrestler, epigram on, 377

Dead heats, 206

Deinosthenes of Sparta, courier, 155 n. 2

Delos, festival at, 33; gymnasium, 489

Delphi, charioteer, 111; inscription, περὶ οἴνου, 126; stadium, 257; gymnasium, 483

Democrates of Tenedos, decree in honour of, 156

Diadumenos of Polycleitus, 96

Diagoras of Rhodes, 180

Diagoridae of Rhodes, 47, 130, 179

Diaulos, 51, 280, 283

Diet of athletes, 124, 126, 191

Dikon of Syracuse, runner, 137

Diodorus, gymnasiarchos, stele of, 491

Diodorus of Pergamum, gymnasiarchos, restores gymnasium, 500

Dion, accounts of archonship of, at Delphi, 261, 483

Dion of Prusa (Chrysostom) at the Isthmia, 173, 214

Dionysodorus of Thebes and Alexander, 154

Diophon, pentathlete, epigram on, 359, 368

Discipline enforced by the rod, 142, 274, 436, 469, 475

Diskobolos, of Myron, 95, 319, 322, 330; the standing (Vatican), 327. _Vide_ Coins, Sculpture

Diskoi, of stone, 315; of metal, 316; existing specimens, 316; weight and size of, 317

Diskoi, inscribed, Iphitus, 43; Publius Asclepiades, 183; Exoïdas, 316

Diskos and solos in Homer, 22, 313

Diskos, throwing the, distance thrown, 318; balbis, 318; marking the throw, 320; principle of the throw, 322; typical positions, 323; stance, 327; backward swing, 330; the forward swing and throw, 331; modern styles, 333; competitions in, 337

Dolichos, 51, 270, 279, 281, 284

Domitius Tutus, Q., votive offering of, 222

Dorian invasion, 42

Dorieus of Rhodes, boxer, 130, 375

Doryphoros of Polycleitus, 95

Drachma, value of, 262

Drill, textbooks of, 374

Dromeus of Mantinea, pankratiast, 375

Dromeus of Stymphalus, dolichodromos and trainer, introduces meat diet, 126, 505

Dromos, at Sparta, 467

Drumos of Epidaurus, inscription of, 285

Dumb-bells, halteres used as, 310

Elaiothesion, 490

Elean embassy to Egypt, 68

Eleans and Pisatans, 43, 142

Eleans, Ϝρατραι of, 51

Elis, synoecism of, 115; the new city, 117; treaty with Heraea, 46

Empedocles of Aetna, 207

Epaenetus, inscribed halter of, 298

Epaminondas and athletics, 127

Epharmostus of Opous, 180, 228

Ephebeion, 490, 495

Epheboi, 99; reorganized by Lycurgus, 148; training of,, 149 ff.

Ephesus, stadium, 266; gymnasium, 494

Epicharinus, hoplitodromos, statue of, 94

Epidaurus, athletes fined for bribery, 148 n.; stadium, 254

Epigrams, athletic, 172; their veracity, 310

Epinikia, 78, 105 ff.

Etruscan wall-paintings, funeral games, 27; wrestling, 384; boxing, 412

Euagoras of Sparta, chariot-race, 133

Eumastas, inscription on weight, 83

Eumelus, 34

Eupolemus of Elis, runner, 135

Eupolus of Thessaly, boxer, bribes opponents, 134

Euripides, epinikion on Alcibiades, 105; on professional athletes, 131

Euryleonis of Sparta, 462

Eutelidas of Sparta, pentathlete and wrestler, 57, 70

Euthymus of Locri Epizephyrii, boxer, worshipped as a hero, 77

Exaenetus of Agrigentum, runner, triumphal entry of, 77

Exercises, classification of, heavy and light, 364; according to Galen, 509

Exoïdas, inscribed diskos of, 316

Festivals— Actia, reorganized by Augustus, 168 Adriania, 180 Antinoea, 176 Asclepiea at Epidaurus, 180, 254 Assinaria, commemorated on coins of Syracuse, 465 Augustalia at Neapolis, regulations for, 169, 175, 271 Augustea, 180 Azan in Arcadia, 31 Balbillea, 180 Capitolia at Rome, 170 Carnea, 72 Chrysanthina at Sardis, 180 Delia, 33 Dioclea at Megara, 3 Eleutheria at Plataea, 31, 108, 286 Erotidia, 372 Eusebea at Puteoli, 180 Euryclea at Sparta, 184 n. 2 Haliea at Rhodes, 31 Heraclea at Sparta, 180 Heraea at Olympia, 47, 272 Heraea at Argos, 180 Hermaea in palaestra, 469 Leonidaea at Sparta, 176, 184, 491 Olympia at Aegae, 154; Alexandria, 181; Antioch, 170; Dium, 152; Athens, Smyrna, Ephesus, 180 Petraea, 211 Ptolemaea, 150 Soteria, 158 _Vide_ Olympia, Isthmia, Nemea, Athenian festivals

Flamininus at the Isthmia, 162

Flavius Archibius, T., of Alexandria, pankratiast, inscription, 181

Flavius Artemidorus, T., pankratiast, inscription, 179

Flute-player accompanies athletics, 302, 476

Foot-race, the, 270; length of races, 270; supposed pre-eminence of stade-race, 272; the start, 273; use of starting lines, 274; position of runners, 274; ὕσπληξ, 276; wooden barrier, 277; poaching at the start, 274, 277; heats, 277; use of posts in starting lines, 278; manner of running diaulos and dolichos, 279; styles of running, 280, 290; physical types of runners, 283, 291; performances of Greek runners, 284; race in armour, its character, 285; varieties of, 286, 291; description of, 70, 289; popularity of, 291; Oschophoria, 292; torch-races, 292; methods of training, 292

François vase, 349, 463

Frigidarium, 491

Funeral games, athletic festivals derived from, 27; distribution of, 27; in Ireland, 28; in Greece, 30; represented in art, 30; become periodical, 31; origin of, 31

Galen, 187; his treatise on the “Small Ball,” 187; his exhortation, 188; system of physical training, 509

Games and athletics compared, 3; and physical training, 509; at Sparta, 184

Gems, athletic scenes on, 103; wrestling groups on, 447

Germanicus Caesar, victory at Olympia, 167

Gladiatorial shows introduced into Syria, 161; into Greece, 172

Glaucon of Athens, chariot, 158

Glaucus of Carystus, boxer, 82, 83; statue of, 94

Gorgias of Leontini at Olympia, 137

Gorgos of Messene, pentathlete, 160

Guilds, athletic, 174

Gymnasiarchos, 151, 500 ff.

Gymnasium and palaestra— Difference between, 467; at Athens, 468, 149; essentials of, 470 Scenes from, in Plato, 471; scenes from, on the vases, 472 ff.; exercises in, 472; discipline in, 475; the apodyterion, 476; the bath-room, 479 At Delphi, 483, 213; at Olympia, 486; at Epidaurus and Delos, 489; Vitruvius’ description of, 489; at Ephesus, 494; at Priene, 494; at Pergamum, 496

Gymnastes and paidotribes, difference between, 503

Gymnastics and athletics, 2; and medicine, 505; and music, 2

Gymnopaidike at Sparta, 507

Hadrian, 176

Halter, the Cilician, 442

Halteres, 298 ff.; used as dumb-bells, 310

Heats, drawing lots for, 205, 278

Hellanodicae at Nemea, 66, 225; at local Olympia, 170; at Epidaurus, 257. _Vide_ Olympia

Helvidius, stele of, 241

Heracles, in early art, 84; compared with Theseus, 85; statue of (Farnese), 146; as wrestler, 372; wrestles with Antaeus, 380, 383, 388, 390, 444, 448; as boxer, 402; as pankratiast, 437; fights with Nemean lion, 384, 387, 437; with Triton and Achelous, 447

Heracles, successors of, 146, 161, 174

Heralds, competitions for, 139, 199

Herculanei, guild of, 175

Hermes, patron of gymnasium, 485

Herodes Atticus, his buildings, 178, 259, 263

Herodicus of Selymbria, 129, 504

Herodotus at Olympia, 139

Herodotus of Thebes, his own charioteer, 221, 228, 463

Hieron of Syracuse, 210

Hieromnemones, 208

Hieronymus defeats Tisamenus in pentathlon, 366

Himantes. _Vide_ Boxing

Hippeis, Helbig’s theory of the, 71

Hippias of Elis, 140; compiles Olympic register, 50

Hippios race, 220, 225, 270

Hippocrates of Cos, condemns athletic training, 128

Hippodrome, 451; absence of spina, 452; on Mt. Lycaeus, 452; at Olympia, 452; aphesis of, 453; Taraxippos, 455; equestrian programme, 457; length of races, 457; four-horse chariot, 458; two-horse chariot, 459; mule car, 460; jockeys, 460; apobates, 461

Hippomachus, trainer, 114

Hipposthenes of Sparta, wrestler, 57

Homer, the joy of sport, 11; Phaeacians and Achaeans, 12; sport spontaneous and aristocratic, 14, 25; prizes, 14; games of Patroclus, 15 ff.; chariot-race, 15; boxing, 17; wrestling, 19; foot-race, 20; armed combat, 21; throwing the stone, 22; sports of the soldiers, 24; acrobats, 25

Hoplite race, 70, 225. _Vide_ Foot-race

Hoplitodromos of Tübingen, 94, 275

Hoplomachia, in Homer, 21; at Thesea, 248

Hoplomachos, 151, 506

Horse-races, 58, 71, 460

Hysmon of Elis, pentathlete, 136

Iasos, consumption of oil in gymnasium, 502

Iccus of Tarentum, trainer, 129, 505

Iliac line in Greek sculpture, 311

Immorality, gymnasia accused of, 99

Iphitus, truce of, 43

Ireland, funeral games, 28; use of amentum, 343

Isocrates’ _Panegyric_ at Olympia, 138

Isthmia, refounding of, in 582 B.C., 64; rivalry with Olympia, 65, 216; Dion Chrysostom’s description of, 173, 214; corruption at, 174; character of, 214; connexion with Athens, 216; history of, 216; competition somewhat local, 216; sacred truce and Sparta, 217; under the Romans, 218; control transferred to Sicyon, 219; restored to Corinth, 219; programme of, 220; prizes at, 221

Jason of Pherae, 152, 212

Javelin, the, 338; the amentum, 339; its use in war and the chase, 340; its distribution, 342; the ounep and the throwing stick, 344; its effect, 346

Javelin, throwing the, practical style, 348; athletic style, 350; with or without a run, 352; left-handed throw, 352; competitions in, 353, 135; in Homer, 352, 21; in fifth century, 354; part of pentathlon, 355; rules for, 356; on horseback, 356

Julius Caesar, sports provided by, 166

Jumping, in Homer, 24; part of pentathlon, 295; a long jump, 296; hopping and other exercises, 296; the skamma, 297; the bater, 297; measuring the jump, 298; jumping weights, 298; method of using, 301; a standing or running jump, 306; jumping without weights, 308

Konisterion, 485, 492, 500

Korykeion, 492

Korykos, 478

Kosmetes, 150, 501

Laches of Ceos, runner, 195

Laconicum, 491

Ladas of Achaea, stadiodromos, 284

Ladas of Sparta, dolichodromos, 284

Lakkoma at Delphi, 261

Lampadarchia, Lampadarchos, 501. _Vide_ Torch-race

Lampito, 296

Lampon of Aegina, 111

Laodicea, stadium, 266

Larisa, inscription, 354

Leon of Ambracia, appeals to Olympic council, 135

Leonidas of Naxos, builds Leonidaeum, 156

Leonidas of Rhodes, runner, τριαστής, 161

Leontiscus of Sicily, breaks opponent’s fingers, 373, 386

Lichas of Sparta, beaten at Olympia, 142

Licinius Priscus, improves stadium at Isthmus, 219

Loin-cloth, 48, 376

Love names, on vases, 99

Lucian’s _Anacharsis_, 182 and _passim_

Lyceum at Athens, 149, 468, 472

Lycurgus of Athens, 148, 263

Lycurgus of Sparta, and trace of Iphitus, 43

Lygdamis of Syracuse, boxer, 58

Lysander, statue of, at Olympia, 140

Lysias, _Panegyric_, 34; at Olympia, 138

Macedon and Olympia, 151, 158

Marathon, the charge at, 107

Massage, 129, 478

Medical gymnastics, 129

Megacles of Athens, 210

Melancomas, boxer, 174, 428

Melesias, trainer, 505

Melissus of Thebes, pankratiast, 444

Menander of Athens, trainer, 108, 505

Messene, stadium, 266

Messenian successes at Olympia, 54, 143

Metae of stadium, 267

Metrodorus of Pergamum, gymnasiarchos, 497

Midas of Agrigentum, flute-player, 230

Military competitions, 150 ff.; at Athens, 239, 248

Milo of Croton, wrestler, 82, 310, 375, 377

Mosaic, from Tusculum, 176, 447; from baths of Caracalla, 189, 411

Mud, wrestling in, 376

Mule chariot-race, 71, 460

Mummius at Olympia, 162

Mycenae, absence of athletics, 11; “warrior vase,” 340

Myron of Sicyon, 59

Myron, sculptor, 95

Nemea, origin of festival, 66; similarity to Olympia, 66; Hellanodicae at, 66, 225; control of, 223; history of, 224; the winter Nemea, 224; the sanctuary, 224; date, of, 225; programme of, 225; athletic character of, 226; nature of competition at, 226

Nero at Olympia, 171; at Isthmia, 218

Nicasylus of Rhodes, 271

Nicogenes of Athens, Agonothetes, decree in honour of, 150

Nicostratus of Cilicia, last successor of Heracles, 174

Nudity in athletics, influence of, 86

Oenopides at Olympia, 140

Oil, use of, in athletics, 273; in gymnasium, 477, 490; supplied by gymnasiarchos, 477; large quantity used, 502

Oligaethidae of Corinth, victories of, 217

Olympia, buildings and monuments at— Altar of Zeus, 53 Altis wall, 119, 156 Bouleuterion, 69, 116, 119 Colonnades, 120, 156 Exedra of Herodes, 171 Gymnasium, 159, 488 Heraeum, 48, 52 Heroum, 156 Hippodamium, 39 Hippodrome, 120, 452 Historical monuments, 118, 137, 138, 145, 158, 162 Leonidaeum, 156 Metroum, 167 Nero, house of, 171 Oenomaus, house of, 39 Palaestra, 159, 486 Pelops, tomb of, 39 Philippeum, 153 Processional entrance, 171 Prytaneum, 70 Prehistoric remains at, 39 Stadium, 53, 120, 156, 167, 251 ff. Statues, athletic, 57, 70, 121, 136, 160, 168 Statues, honorary, 140, 157, 159, 168, 182 Temple of Zeus, 119 Theocoleon, 156 Treasuries, 58, 69, 118 Treasury steps, 118 Votive offerings, 40, 53, 138, 157, 183

Olympia, history of— Antiquity of, 34; position of, 36; accessibility by sea and land, 36; Cretans and Phoenicians at, 37; connexion with migrations, 37; primitive cults at, 38; mythical founding of games, 39; Pelops and Heracles, 39; in pre-Dorian times, 40; under control of Pisatae, 41; Oxylus and Dorian invasion, 42; Pisatae and Eleans, 43; truce of Iphitus, 43; dual control of, 44; Elean reconstruction of history, 44; date of destruction of Pisa, 46 First Olympiad, 50; Olympia in 776 B.C., 52; competition local at first, 54; gradual expansion eastward, 55; Spartan predominance in seventh century, 56; connexion with western colonies, 58; political importance recognized by tyrants, 59; national and democratic character of, 60; in sixth century, 68 ff.; activity of Eleans, 68; Athenian successes, 73 Representative character of competition in fifth century, 108; high ideal of Olympia, 115; influence of Persian wars, 115; synoecism of Elis, 115; devastation of Pisatis, 116; reorganization of festival by Eleans, 116; new buildings, 118 Between 440-338 B.C., 131 ff.; decline of competition, 131, 136, 140, 145; beginnings of corruption, 134; political influence of festival, 136; a centre of Panhellenism, 136; expansion of interests, 139; quarrel with Sparta, 141; humiliation of Elis, 142; Elis and Arcadia, 143; battle at Olympia and triumph of Elis, 144 Importance of festival in Macedonian times, 152 ff.; Philip II., 153; Alexander, 154; Alexandrian victories at, 155; Macedonian monuments, 155; Macedonian victories, 158; change in competition, 160; cessation of victors from the west, 160 Decline in first century B.C., 164; games transferred to Rome by Sulla, 165; discontinuance of chariot-races, 165; revival under the Empire, 167; Nero at, 170; Hadrian and Herodes Atticus, 176; antiquarian interest in Olympia, 182; the last days of the festival, 192

Olympiads, used for chronology, 52

Olympic festival— Date of, 194; duration of, 195; order of, 196-200; description of, in fifth century, 201-207 Competitors, requirements for, 46; dress of, 48; names entered beforehand, 202; training of, 202; oath and scrutiny of, 203 Council, 44, 69, 135 Exegetae, 168 Hellanodicae, 44, 69, 116, 117, 135, 192, 202, 205 Heralds and trumpeters, 202, 205 Iamidae and Clytidae, 41, 44 Officials, lists of, 167 Prizes, 48; table of Colotes, 3, 53, 121; when given, 206 Programme, 51; additions to, 57, 58, 70, 71, 133, 139, 161, 165 Register of victors, 50, 198 Sacred truce, 43, 201 Spectators, 139, 203 Theoroi, 60 Women, exclusion of, 47

Onomastus of Smyrna, makes laws for boxing, 33, 56

Onomastus, inscription of, on prize caldron, 72

Oricadmus of Sicily, laws for wrestling, 401

Orsippus of Megara, runner, 48

Oschophoria, 228

Ounep or throwing thong, 344

Over-athleticism, 78

Oxyrhynchus Papyrus, fragment of Olympic register, 50, 108, 198; wrestling, 374, 507

Paidonomos, 151, 497

Paidotribes and gymnastes, distinction between, 503

Paidotribes, dress of, 474; fees, 151, 503

Palaestra and gymnasium, difference between, 468

Palaestra, different types of, 469; of Miccus in Plato, 471; life in, 149

Palm of victory, 76 n. 1

Panathenaea, reorganized by Peisistratus, 74; why not Panhellenic, 75; programme of, 75, 230; recitations at, 230; musical contests at, 230; athletic, 233; equestrian, 235; prizes at, 75, 231, 232, 234, 241; fewness of Athenian victories at, 235; tribal competitions, 239; regatta, 241; prizes, 241; prize amphorae, 242; stadium, 263

Panathenaic amphorae, 75, 241-245

Panhellenic festivals, cycle of, 67

Pankration, alleged brutality of, 435; Philostratus’ description of, 438; combination of wrestling and boxing, 439; various throws, 440; leg-holds, 441; stomach throw, 442; kicking, 445; strangling, etc., 446; ground-wrestling, 448; Uffizi wrestlers, 448

Paradromis, 483

Parthenon, Panathenaic procession on frieze of, 230; athletic type on, 102; apobates on, 238

Patroclus, games of, 15

Peisistratus, 73, 74

Peleus, pentathlon of, 362; wrestling with Atalanta, 387

Pelias, funeral games of, 30, 353

Peloponnese, the home of athletics, 9

Pentathlon, commended by Aristotle, 136; the events of, 359; three distinctive events, 360; typical of Greek education, 361; supposed invention by Jason, 362; pentathlon of Peleus, 362; order of events, 362; method of deciding, 365

Pergamum, inscription of Attalus, 158; stadium, 254 n. 1; gymnasia, 496 ff.

Periander of Corinth, 60

Phaedimus, boy pankratiast, 161

Phanas of Pellene, τριαστής, 82

Phayllus of Croton, 212, 284, 308 ff., 318, 368

Pheidiphides, courier, 181, 285

Pheidon of Argos, 45, 55, 59

Pherenice, 47

Philinus of Cos, runner, 161

Philip II. of Macedon, 152, 460

Philip V. of Macedon, at Nemea, 224

Philippus of Croton, worshipped here, 77

Philippus, boxer, inscription of, 375

Philon, contractor, fined by Hellanodicae, 254

Philonides of Crete, courier, 155, 181

Philopoemen, 160; reception of, at Nemea, 224

Philostratus, “gymnastike,” 189 and _passim_

Phintia, inscription on duties of gymnasiarchos, 502

Phlegon of Tralles, edits Olympic Register, 50, 182, 198

Phylacidas of Aegina, 111

Picks, in gymnasia, 297, 434, 475

Pindar, 105, 185; his athletic ideal, 109 ff.

Pisa, date of destruction of, 46; Pisatae, 41 ff.

Platanistas at Sparta, 184, 468

Plato, attitude towards athletics, 128; his ideal gymnastic, 128, 270; on boxing, 136; on running, 270; on wrestling, 380

Plutarch, on physical training, 187

Polites, runner, 199

Polycleitus, 95

Polydamas of Scotussa, pankratiast, 77

Polydeuces as boxer, 402; his fight with Amycus, 428

Polymnestor of Miletus, runner, 58

Pot-hunting, 81, 174

Powder for washing, 480; for massage, 492

Praxidamas of Aegina, boxer, statue of, 70

Praxiteles, the Hermes of, 52

Priene, stadium, 265; gymnasium, 494

Prizes, in Homer, 14; at Olympia, 48; at different festivals, 72; money, 82, 169; at Panathenaea, 75, 232, 234, 241; at Ceos, 151; at Sparta, 185; at Pythia, 214; at Isthmia, 221; at Nemea, 225; at Assinaria, 466

Professionalism, 81, 130, 146, 160

Ptolemaei and Olympia, 158

Ptolemaeus Lagi, 158, 211

Ptolemaeus Philadelphus, 149

Pylos and Pylians, 42

Pyrrhic chorus, 240

Pythagoras of Samos, boxer, 58

Pythagoras of Samos, trainer, 126, 505

Pytheas of Aegina, pankratiast, 111, 225

Pythia, originally held every eight years, 62; a musical festival, 63; first Sacred war, 63; refounded as pentaeteris, 582 B.C., 63; date of, 208; Hieromnemones, 208; programme of, 209; musical events, 209; painting competition, 209; equestrian events, 210; athletic events, 211; stadium, 212; hippodrome, 212; importance of, in fourth century, 212; Pythia held at Athens, 290 B.C., 213; Pythaids, 213; under the Empire, 213; duration and order of events, 213; prize, 214, 64

Record-breaking, in Imperial times, 181

Records, absence of, among Greeks, 2

Rhexibius of Opous, pankratiast, statue of, 70

Riding, taught in gymnasium, 476

Roman games, spectacular, 166

Romans, admitted to Greek festivals, 161; attitude of, towards athletics, 163

Rowing, 507

Running. _Vide_ Foot-race

Scholiasts, worthlessness of their evidence, 359

Sculpture, athletic— Earliest athletic statues, 70; sculpture of sixth century, 84; Apollo of Tonea, 88; Argive statue from Delphi, 90; Boeotian type, 90; Choiseul-Gouffier Apollo, 90; Aeginetan pediments, 90; Ligourio bronze, 91; Argive and Athenian types, 91 Development of athletic statue, 93; Tübingen hoplitodromos, 94; Myron’s diskobolos, 95, 319, 322, 330; Polycleitus, 95 Growing uniformity of type, 97; preference for younger type, 101; head of ephebos, 102; Delphi charioteer, 111 Diversity of type in fourth century, 124; Apoxyomenos and Agias, 124; Farnese Heracles, 146; cessation of athletic statues, 160 Girl runner (Vatican), 48; standing diskobolos (Vatican), 327; bronze statuettes of diskobolos, 326, 328, 330; wrestling boys (Naples), 379, 382; bronze wrestling groups, 396, 398, 399, 400; boxer of the Terme, 146, 409; Uffizi wrestlers, 448

Sicilian, rules for wrestling, 401; love of horse-racing, 451

Sicily and Italy, athletic eminence in sixth century, 81; decline in third century, 160

Simonides, epinikia, 78, 109; epigrams, 359, 364, 378

Skamma, 297, 376

Smyrna, connexion with Peloponnese, 50

Socrates on athletics, 124, 127

Sogenes of Aegina, pentathlete, 224

Solon, rewards for athletes, 74; laws for palaestrae, 469, 477

Solos, 24, 313

Sophius of Messene, runner, 143

Sophronistai, 501

Sostratus of Sicyon, pankratiast, 148, 447

Sotades of Crete, proclaims himself an Ephesian, 134

Sparta, athletic greatness in seventh century, 56; decline in sixth century, 81; popularity of horse-racing, 133; revival of Lycurgean discipline under the Empire, 183; contest of endurance, 183; festivals and games, 184; ball games, 185; musical and other competitions, 185; successes in running, 284; contempt of science in boxing and wrestling, 401, 402, 425

Spina, unknown in Greek race-courses, 251

Stadiodromos and Olympic chronology, 52, 273

Stadium, primitive type of, 251; history of, 267; Isthmia, 219; Nemea, 225; Olympia, 252; Epidaurus, 254; Delphi, 257; Athens, 263; Priene, 265; Messene, 266; Ephesus, 266; Aezani, 266; Aphrodisias, 266; Laodicea, 266

Start, the. _Vide_ Aphesis, Foot-race

Statius, description of boxing, 426, 432

Stomius of Elis, pentathlete, 136

Stone-throwing in war and sport, 23

Strigil, 481

Style in athletics, importance attached to, 2, 114, 373

Sulla transfers Olympia to Rome, 165

Sweating-bath, 491

Swimming, 83, 507

Sybaris, 58, 82

Syracuse, 465

Taraxippus, 455

Tarentum, love of horses, 461

Tauromenium, number of competitions at, 502

Teos, inscriptions, 151, 502, 503

Tetrads, 191

Theagenes of Thasos, boxer, pankratiast, 77, 81, 82

Thebes, famed for chariots, 50, 210, 211; for wrestling, 401

Themistocles, at Olympia, 116; teaches his son riding and the javelin, 132, 356; frequents Cynosarges, 468

Theocritus, description of boxing, 428

Theodota, victory in chariot-race, 462

Theophrastus, 393, 485

Theseus, science of wrestling ascribed to, 372; of boxing, 402; of pankration, 437; wrestles with Cercyon, 391; comparison of, with Heracles, 85

Thessalian wrestling, 401

Thessaly, famed for horses, 58, 210

Tisamenus defeated by Hieronymus, 365

Tiberius Caesar, victory in chariot-race, 167

Timodemidae of Athens, 217, 226

Timodemus of Athens, 229

Tisander of Naxos, boxer, swims for exercise, 83

Titormus, weight-lifter and strong man, 83

Torch-races, 151, 240, 247, 292, 461, 501

Toxotes, 151

Trainers, 81, 108, 122, 504

Training, 124, 191, 293, 503

Troilus of Elis, Hellanodicas, wins horse-race unfairly, 135

Truce, sacred, 43, 141, 201; abuse of, by Argos, 223

Trumpet, races started by, 456

Trumpeters, competitions for, 139, 199

Tug of war, 405

Tullius, M., of Apamea, boxer, inscription of, 151

Tydeus, as boxer, 402

Tyrtaeus, 81, 88

Valerius Eclectus of Sinope, herald, 192

Varazdates, last Olympic victor, 193

Vases, athletic scenes on, 104; red and black figured, compared, 85, 352, 418; conventional representation of running, 282; geometric vases, 30; Panathenaic, 75, 241

Vergil, description of boxing, 172, 431

Vitruvius, description of gymnasium, 489

Walk-over, 375

Watsch, amentum represented on sword-belt, 343; boxing on situlae, 412

Weight-lifting, 83

Women, excluded from Olympia, 47; compete in chariot-races, 47, 239, 462; foot-races for, at the Heraea, 47; join in sports with men at Sparta, 47, 296; wrestle with youths at Chios, 387

Wrestling, its popularity, 372; an exercise of skill, 373; instruction in, 374; competitions in, the bye, 374; number of competitors, 374; “upright” and “ground,” 376; rules of, 377; the throw, 377; number of throws, 378; leg-holds, 380; preliminary position, 382; arm-holds, 383; flying mare, 383; neck-holds, 386; body-holds, 389; the heave, 391; cross-buttock, 393; tripping, 397; variety of styles, 400

Xenarches of Sparta, chariot-race, 225

Xenocles of Maenalus, wrestler, 375

Xenocrates of Agrigentum, chariot, 210

Xenophanes, protest against over-athleticism, 79, 272

Xenophon, 130; account of battle of Olympia, 196, 363; on javelin-throwing, 356

Xystarches, 175, 176, 506

Xystos, 483

Zanes, 134, 174

Zosimus of Priene, gymnasiarchos, 496

INDEX OF GREEK WORDS

ἀγένειοι, 271

ἀγκύλη, 339

ἀγκυρίσας, 400

ἄγχειν, 446

ἀγὼν ἐπιτάφιος, 30

ἀγὼν θεματικός, στεφανίτης, 67

ἀγῶνος ἔξω, 356

ἀθλητής, 130

ἄθλιος, 273 n. 1

αἰγανέη, 340

αἰδώς, 103, 112

ἄκαμπτον, 237

ἀκονιτεί, 375

ἀκόντιον, ἄκων, ἀκοντιστής, 338, 342

ἀκοντισμός, 354

ἀκροχειρισμός, 433, 439

ἀλεγεινός, 17

ἀλειπτήριον, ἀλειφόμενοι, 491 n. 1

ἁλίνδησις, ἁλινδήθρα, 376

ἅλματα, 261

ἁλτῆρες, 298

ἁλτηροβολία, 310

ἀμφωτίδες, ἐπωτίδες, 433

ἀναβαστάσαι εἰς ὕψοσ, 383

ἀνακλινοπάλη, κλινοπάλη, 374 n. 2

ἀνθιππασία, 239

ἀπειπεῖν, 415

ἀπήνη, 71, 457

ἀποβατής, 71

ἀποδυτήριον, 471

ἀποπτερνίζειν, 442

ἀπόρραξις, 485 n. 1

ἀποτομάς, 338

ἀποτριάξαι, 368

ἅρμα, 457; πολεμιστήριον, 237

ἀρυτῆρες, 491

ἀσκωλιασμός, 228, 296

ἀσυνεξωστός, 179

ἄφεσις, 273, 452

βαλανεῖον, 479

βαλβίς, 252, 276 n. 1, 277 n. 6, 318

βάλλω, βολή, and their compounds as wrestling terms, 396

βατήρ, 252, 297

βηματιστής, 155

βοαγός, 185

βοῦς αϊρεσθαι, 9 n. 2

γαστρίζειν, 446

γραμμή, 251, 273

γυμνάσιον, 467

γυρόω, 382

διαβολή, 397, 400

διαλαμβάνειν, 388

δίαυλος, 51, 270

διελκυστίνδα, or διὰ γραμμῆς παίζειν, 405

διηγκυλισμένος, 348

δόλιχος, 51, 271

δράσσειν, 383

δρόμος ἄκαμπτος, 237; κάμπειος, 251; τετραέλικτος, 270 n. 2

δρόμος, 467; κατάστεγος, ὁ ἔξω, 472

ἐγκριτηρίους οἴκους, 220

ἔδραν στρέφειν, ἐδροστρόφος, 388, 393

ἐκεχειρία, 43

ἐκπλεθρίζειν, 509

ἑλκυστίνδα, or σκάπερδα, 405

ἐμβολή, 396

ἐναγκυλῶντες, 346 n. 2

ἐνάλλεσθαι, 446

ἐνδρομίδες, 273

ἐνεκολήβασας, 400

ἐπίσφαιρα, 410

εὐανδρία, 240, 247

ἔφεδρος, 370

ζεῦγος, 235

ἡμεροδρόμοι, 88

ἡνίοχος ἐγβιβάζων, 238

θεωρίαι, 60

ἰατραλειπτικῄ, 129

ἰδιωτής, 130

ἱερομηνία, 43

ἱερὸν ποιεῖν, 206

ἵμαντες μαλακώτεροι, 403; ὀξεῖς, 409

ἵππιος, ἐφίππιος, 270

ἵππος ἀδηφάγος, 235 n. 4; λαμπρός, 236; πολυδρόμος, 237; πολεμιστής, 237

ἰσολύμπιος, ἰσοπύθιος, 169

Καθθηρατόριν, 185

καλαῦροψ, 314, 459 n. 1

κάλπη, 71, 457

καμπτῆρες, 251, 261

κανών, 298, 338

κατωμαδίοιο, 23

κελῆα, 185

κέλης, 457

κήρωμα, 494

κλιμακισμός, 447

κλῖμαξ, 432

κολυμβήθρα, 482, 486

κονία, κόνις, 492

κόνιμα, κονίστρα, κονιστήριον, 484

κύλισις, 376

κώρυκος, 434, 478

λαβή, 382

λευκῶμα, 204, 205

ληνοί, 500

λουτῆρες, 500

μείλιχαι, 403

μεσάγκυλον, 338

μεσοφέρδειν, 388

μεταβαίνειν, μεταβαλέσθαι, μεταβιβάζειν, 392

μεταπλασμός, 397

μικιζόμενοι, 185

μύρμηκες, 410 n. 5

μῶα, 185

νεανίσκοι, 247

νύσσα, 251

ξηραλοιφεῖν, 491

ξυστός, ξυσταρχής, 175, 483

ὀρύττειν, 438

παγκράτιον τὸ ἄνω, τὸ κάτω, 439

πάλαισμα, 366

πάλη ὀρθή, σταδιαία, καταβλητική, 376

πάντων (ἐκ), διὰ πάντων, 248

παράδοξος, παραδοξονίκης, 161

παραδρομίς, 483

παράθεσις, 382

παρακαταγωγή, 397

παρεμβολή, 396

περίζωμα, 377

περίοδος, περιοδονίκης, 161

περίπατος, 500

περιπολιστική, 175

περιτιθέναι, 388

πιτυλίζειν, 509

προεδρία, 64

πυριατήριον, 491

σκάμμα, ἐσκαμμένα, 297, 376

σκαπάναι, 297, 434

σκαφεῖον, ἐπισκαφεῖον, 484

σκιαμαχία, 434

σκιλλομαχία, 496

σκοπῷ πεζῶν, ἱππέων, 354

σόλος, 24, 313

σπονδοφόροι, 43, 201

στέφοντα, τά, 261

στλεγγέδες, 481

στρεβλοῦν, 446

συναυλία, 232

συνωρίς, 457

σύστασις, 382

σφαῖραι, 406

σφαιρεῖς, 185

σφαιριστήρια, 484

σφαιρώω, ἐσφαιρωμένα, 338

σφενδόνη, 251

σχήματα, 507

τάξεις, 278

ταυροκαθαψία, 9

τέθριππον, 457

τέρμα, 356

τραχηλίζειν, 386

τριάγμος, τριάκτηρ, τριάσσειν, 368, 378

τριαστής, 82, 161

ὑποσκελίζειν, 396

ὕσπληξ, 255, 276, 456

φορβεία, 476

φράξις, 261

φυλλοβολία, 206

χειρονομία, 434

ψάλις, 262

THE END

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● Transcriber’s Notes: ○ Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected. ○ Typographical errors were silently corrected. ○ Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant form was found in this book. ○ Text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_). ○ Footnotes have been moved to follow the chapters in which they are referenced.