CHAPTER XXI

Ruins near Zimbabwe—East Ruins—Other Ruins within the Zimbabwe Ruins’ Area 420

NOTES AND ADDENDA 433

INDEX 451

LIST OF PLATES

PAGE

Conical Tower, Elliptical Temple, Great Zimbabwe _Frontispiece_

The late Mr. Theodore Bent, F.R.G.S., explorer of Great Zimbabwe in 1891, author of _The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland_ xiii

Coin of Byblos, Phœnicia, showing Conical Tower xxxvi

Wooden Bowl with Zodiacal Signs, found near Zimbabwe xxxvi

Cylinder with Rosettes found at Phœnician Temple of Paphos in Cyprus xxxviii

Soapstone Cylinder, with Rosettes, found near Zimbabwe xxxviii

“Fuko-ya-Nebandge” xl

Model of Temple xl

“To Great Zimbabwe” 2

Havilah Camp, Great Zimbabwe 2

View from Acropolis, showing Elliptical Temple in the Valley, Zimbabwe 10

Conical Tower and Platform (from north), Elliptical Temple, Zimbabwe 16

The Balcony, Eastern Temple, Acropolis. The parapet wall of Balcony is built upon the suspended boulder 16

Carrying débris from the Elliptical Temple 36

A noontide shelter at the Elliptical Temple 36

The Camp Messenger 46

Labourers at the Elliptical Temple 46

The Chipo-popo Falls, near Zimbabwe 56

Rapping the Moje-je-je, or “Mystic Bar,” Zimbabwe 56

Finger Rock, Morgenster, near Zimbabwe 62

I-Baku (the cave) at Chicagomboni, where Adam Renders, the rediscoverer of Great Zimbabwe, lived from 1868 to 1871 62

The Bird Rock, near Zimbabwe 68

View on Motelekwe River 68

A Makalanga, Zimbabwe 80

The Camp Watchman 80

Makalanga “Boys” fencing, Zimbabwe 84

Motumi and Mongwaine, Zimbabwe 84

Makalanga mother and child, Zimbabwe 88

The Mogabe Handisibishe, chief of the Zimbabwe Makalanga 88

Makalanga women and girls at the Mogabe’s Kraal, Great Zimbabwe 96

Soapstone Beams, with Birds, Zimbabwe 102

Front, side, and back views of Soapstone Bird, Zimbabwe 106

Soapstone Bird on Beam, discovered at Philips Ruins, Zimbabwe, in 1903 (three views) 108

An old wall crossing over the foundation of a still older wall, Zimbabwe 152

Binding of the summits of two separate walls 152

Exterior of Drain, Elliptical Temple 170

Monoliths on the Platform, Acropolis 170

South-east Wall, with Chevron Pattern, Elliptical Temple, Great Zimbabwe 198

Chevron Pattern, East Wall, Elliptical Temple 204

North-east Wall, with Chevron Pattern, Elliptical Temple, Great Zimbabwe 206

North-west Entrance, Elliptical Temple 216

Entrance to Passage, No. 10 Enclosure, Elliptical Temple 216

Exterior of North Entrance, Elliptical Temple, Zimbabwe. Discovered 1903 220

Summit of South-east Main Wall, Elliptical Temple 222

West Entrance from interior, Elliptical Temple 222

Nos. 3 and 4 Enclosures and West Main Wall, Elliptical Temple 228

West Entrance, No. 7 Enclosure, Elliptical Temple 234

South Wall of No. 7 Enclosure, showing part (to left) reconstructed, Elliptical Temple 234

Visitors’ Ladder to summit of Main Wall, Elliptical Temple 238

The small Conical Tower, Elliptical Temple 238

The Parallel Passage (from south), Elliptical Temple 246

The Parallel Passage (from north), Elliptical Temple 248

South Entrance to Parallel Passage, looking south, Elliptical Temple 250

Part of Platform Area, looking west, showing drain from No. 10 Enclosure, Elliptical Temple 250

South Wall, with Pattern, No. 11 Enclosure, Elliptical Temple 258

Joint between original and reconstructed walls, Nos. 11 and 12 Enclosures, Elliptical Temple 258

South-east interior of Elliptical Temple, looking N.N.E., and showing excavations, 1902–4 264

Circular Cement Platform, with Steps, and carved Soapstone Beams, discovered 1903, Elliptical Temple 266

Entrance to Inner Parallel Passage from South Passage, Elliptical Temple 266

East Wall, with Pattern, No. 11 Enclosure, Elliptical Temple 268

Inner Parallel Passage, looking east, Elliptical Temple 268

Zimbabwe Hill, or Acropolis. View from Havilah Camp 276

A turn in the Passage of the South-east Ancient Ascent, Acropolis 284

View from South-east Ascent, Acropolis 284

Lower Entrance to Rock Passage, South-east Ascent, Acropolis 286

View down Rock Passage, South-east Ancient Ascent, Acropolis 286

Entrance to Covered Passage, Western Temple, Acropolis 300

Summit of West Wall of Western Temple, Acropolis, showing small tower and monoliths 300

West Entrance to Parallel Passage, Western Temple, Acropolis 308

Buttress Passage, Acropolis 308

The Cleft Rock, from north side, Acropolis 312

Natural Archway, Central Passage, Acropolis 312

View of the Platform from main West Wall of Western Temple, Acropolis 314

Dentelle Pattern on Platform, Western Temple, Acropolis 314

Bottom of Winding Stairs, Western Temple, Acropolis 316

West Entrance to South Cave, Acropolis 316

Exterior of main East Wall, showing Dentelle Pattern, Eastern Temple, Acropolis 328

Sunken Passage (looking east), Eastern Temple, Acropolis 328

East Entrance to Pattern Passage, Acropolis 338

Pattern Passage, Acropolis, looking east 338

West Wall, Recess Enclosure, Acropolis 340

The Recesses at Recess Enclosure, Acropolis 340

Sunken Passage, section of North-west Ascent, Acropolis 346

Herring-bone Pattern, Water Gate, Acropolis 346

Rounded end of Wall on west side of Maund Ruins, showing steps to Platform, Valley of Ruins 384

North-east Wall, Maund Ruins, Valley of Ruins 384

Slate Beam in Recess of Entrance, Philips Ruins, Valley of Ruins 430

The Passage, looking south, Mapaku Ruins, near Zimbabwe 430

• • • • •

Map of Rhodesia xxxii

General Plan of Zimbabwe Ruins 8

Plate I.—Relics 104

Plate II.—Relics 116

Plate III.—Relics 122

Plan of Elliptical Temple 194

Plan of Acropolis Ruins 278

LIST OF DIAGRAMS AND PLANS IN THE TEXT

Great Zimbabwe Reserve 7

Section of Floors, No. 15 Enclosure 103

Arabian Glass 128

Arabian Pottery 131

Section of Floors, No. 6 Enclosure 134

South and North Entrances to No. 7 Enclosure, Elliptical Temple 163, 164

North-west Entrance, Elliptical Temple 217

North or Main Entrance, Elliptical Temple 219

West Entrance to Parallel Passage, Elliptical Temple 247

Section of Eastern Temple, Acropolis 324

Plan of Eastern Temple, Acropolis 326

Outspan Ruins 359

Posselt Ruins 367

Philips Ruins 376

Maund Ruins 384

Renders Ruins 387

Mauch Ruins 393

South-east Ruins 397

No. 1 Ruins 401

Ridge Ruins 411

Camp Ruins, No. 1 415

〃 〃 No. 2 418

East Ruins 421

Ruin near Chenga’s Kraal 427

Mapaku Ruins 429

THE VOLUME IS DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF THE LATE THEODORE BENT, F.R.G.S. EXPLORER OF GREAT ZIMBABWE, 1891 AND AUTHOR OF “THE RUINED CITIES OF MASHONALAND”

PREFACE[1]

In preparing this detailed description of the ruins of Great Zimbabwe—the first given to the world in modern times—the author has aimed at permitting the actual ruins themselves to relate their own story of their forgotten past unweighted by any consideration of the many traditions, romances, and theories which—especially during the last decade—have been woven concerning these monuments.

The only apology offered for this apparently lengthy Preface is the mention of the fact that the operations at Great Zimbabwe were carried on for six months after the text of this volume had been sent to the publishers in England. The Preface, therefore, thus affords an opportunity of bringing down the results of these operations to a recent date.

RUINS’ AREA

The recent examination of the district surrounding the ruins now shows the Ruins’ Area to be far larger than either Mr. Theodore Bent (1891) or Sir John Willoughby (1892) supposed. Instead of the area being confined to 945 yds. by 840 yds., it is now known to be at least 2 miles by 1¼ miles, and even this larger limit is by no means final, as traces of walls and of walls buried several feet under the veld have been discovered, not only in Zimbabwe Valley, but in the secluded valleys and gorges and on the hillsides which lie a mile and even two miles beyond the extended area. Huge mounds, many hundred feet in circumference, with no traces of ruins, covered with large full-grown trees and with the remains on the surface of very old native huts, on being examined have been found to contain well-built ruins in which were unearthed small conical towers, gold ornaments, a few phalli, and in one instance a carved soapstone bird on a soapstone beam 4 ft. 8 in. high, which is more perfect and more ornate than any other soapstone bird on beam yet found at Zimbabwe. The examination of such spots and of all traces of walls which lie at the outer edge of the extended Ruins’ Area would, even with a large gang of labourers, occupy almost a lifetime.

Mr. Bent spoke of Zimbabwe as a “city,” and recent discoveries show the employment of this title to be fully justified, for not only is the Ruins’ Area vastly extended, but the formerly conjectured area can now be shown by recent excavations to have been much more crowded with buildings than could possibly have been seen in 1891. For instance, 2,300 ft. of passages have recently been discovered within the heart of the old Ruins’ Area buried some feet under the silted soil below the veld in spots where the siltation is rapid, the existence of which structures had been altogether unsuspected. In some instances the native paths, used by visitors inspecting the ruins, crossed these passages from 3 ft. to 5 ft. above the tops of the passage walls. The enormous quantity of débris, evidencing occupations in several periods, scattered over both the old and the extended area, is simply astonishing, and judging by the value of “finds” made during the recent work, it seems quite possible that further exploration would, in the intrinsic value of relics as relics, largely reimburse the expense of its continuance, while securing the opening up of fresh features of architecture and probably some definite clues as to the original builders of the numerous periods of occupation respectively; would bring an immense addition to scientific knowledge, while the more important ruins themselves, having been cleared of silted and imported soils and wall débris, are now ripe for the further examination for relics.

BURIAL-PLACES OF THE OLD COLONISTS

The secluded valleys, and also the caves in hills, for a distance of six miles, and in some cases as far as ten miles, from Zimbabwe have been systematically searched in the hope of discovering the burial place of the old gold-seekers. The neighbourhood of Zimbabwe contains several extensive ranges of granite hills each enclosing many secluded and Sinbad-like valleys and gorges, where natives state white men had never previously entered. Such spots on the whole of the Beroma Hills to the east of Zimbabwe, the south end of the Livouri Range to the west, the Bentberg Range to the south, and several hills in the Nini district, as well as several parts in the Motelekwe Valley, have been systematically searched without avail, though there are in certain of these secluded places traces of walls and artificially placed upright stones and other signs of human presence which require some explanation. The siltation of soil from the steep hillsides of many of these most romantically situated valleys has been very extensive. These searches could only be carried on after veld fires had swept the district of the rank grass which here grows to a height of 12 ft. Mr. Bent and other writers have shown that the old Arabians religiously preserved their dead, burying them in secluded spots at some considerable distance from any place of occupation. The writer is not without hope that these burial-places may yet be found. The population of Zimbabwe at several different periods must have been immense, and, judging by the remains found near some of the oldest types of ruins in other parts of the country where the amount of gold ornaments buried with each corpse ranged from 1 oz. to 72 oz., the discovery of such places in the Zimbabwe district would yield important results, especially as, for many reasons, Zimbabwe undoubtedly appears to have been the ancient metropolitan capital and the centre of gold-manufacturing industry of the original and later Arab gold miners, and the place so far has yielded the richest discoveries of gold in every form.

The writer is now perfectly assured that no burial-places of the original builders will be found under the interior of the Elliptical Temple or within 30 yds. of the exterior. Holes have been sunk at regular intervals within the temple and immediately outside the walls, and boring-rods have been systematically employed, and the position and lie of the formation rock ascertained throughout, so that sections and levels have been made of the soil and rock under the temple. All the results gained from each hole and boring are recorded. But beyond discovering buried foundations at the higher level, only virgin soil, never before disturbed, was gone through. French and German archæologists who visited Zimbabwe during the operations confirmed what British scientists have affirmed, that no burials of people of Semitic stock would be found within or near to any building so frequently in use as the great temple must have been. The severe restrictions with regard to cleanliness and sanitation, especially as to the dead, are among the most notable features of the old Semitic nations.

ABSENCE OF INSCRIPTIONS

No ancient writing has been discovered, though close attention has been paid to all stones and pottery likely to bear it, and notwithstanding that the interiors of some of the more ancient portions of the ruins have been cleared down to the old floors where, if any existed, they might reasonably have been expected to be found. Post-Koranic lettering was found on highly glazed pottery, also on glass, but all such specimens are of a fragmentary character; but experts such as Mr. Wallace Budge, the Head Keeper of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities at the British Museum, state that the glass and other “finds” of pottery are not older than the thirteenth or fourteenth century of this era. Other pottery thickly covered with dull-coloured glazes—mainly purples, greens, and browns—is thought to be somewhat older than that on which the lettering was found. Still, as such a very large portion of what may be considered as the more ancient of the ruins remains to be examined, it may yet be possible to unearth older specimens of Arab writing.

TWO PERIODS OF GOLD MANUFACTURE

Gold in a manufactured form is found on the lowest and original floors of the most ancient portions of the Zimbabwe ruins. In several ruins this was found as thickly strewn about the cement floors as nails in a carpenter’s shop. Gold ornaments discovered at this depth, in some instances from 3 ft. to 5 ft. below any known native floors, were always found in association with the oldest form of relics yet unearthed at Zimbabwe. Such gold articles are of most delicate make, and are doubtless of an antique character, and expert opinion recently obtained in England confirms this conclusion.

But there are other gold articles which are ruder in design and make, and these by no means are entitled to claim such antiquity. In fact, expert opinion declines to recognise them as being in any sense ancient; for instance, beaten gold of irregular shape showing the rough hammer marks of some very crude instrument, and with holes round the edges of such plates very rudely cut—or rather torn—and placed in imperfect rows altogether in a haphazard style. This form of gold plates is identical in every detail with the copper sheathing with which it is always found associated. The same remarks apply equally to the gold beads also found with this class of plates which betoken crude workmanship, as well as to the iron instruments decorated with small gold knobs.

With regard to the location of the later-period gold articles there is ample evidence that these are of very old native origin. Such ornaments are commonly met with on the floors of, or in close proximity to, the old native huts of the types of Nos. 2 and 3 (see _Architecture_, s.s. _Native Huts found in Ruins_, pp. 154, 155, _post_), and also in the cement huts with small radiating walls on levels several feet above any ancient floorings. In every instance such gold ornaments are found in association with articles of old native make—such as double iron gongs, copper sheathing, and copper assegai- and arrow-heads.

ELLIPTICAL TEMPLE

NORTH ENTRANCE

In 1902 the floor of the North Entrance to the temple was exposed to a depth of 5 ft. below the surface, as shown in Mr. Bent’s book (p. 106), while a flight of steps in perfect condition leading up to the entrance from the exterior was discovered at a depth of 9 ft. below the old surface. This entrance, showing a bold conception and admirable construction, is now considered as one of the principal show features at Zimbabwe. Further, it is the oldest form of entrance and steps as well as the finest of any yet discovered in Rhodesia. A quantity of gold was found on the floor and steps of this entrance, which were once covered with fine granite cement, also a few true phalli.

PARALLEL PASSAGE

This has been cleared throughout to a depth of at least 3 ft., and in one place 7 ft. Cement floors were exposed, and these were found to be divided into small catchment areas with a drain from each passing outwards through the main wall. Five additional drains were discovered in this passage. Here were found eight ornate phalli, a portion of a gold bangle, some beaten gold and gold tacks of microscopic size, and fragments of carved soapstone beams.

SACRED ENCLOSURE

This was cleared out to a depth of 4 ft. throughout its whole area, and a few phalli of unmistakable form were found, and old granite cement floors and steps were uncovered. Explorers and relic hunters had worked in this enclosure, and had double trenched it from end to end.

A remarkable discovery was made here of distinct traces of granite cement dadoes, 7 ft. high, round the interior faces of the walls of this enclosure. In some other enclosures the remains of dadoes can still be seen.

The small conical tower in this enclosure has during the last ten years been seriously damaged by the large trunk of a tree pushing over the summit of the cone. Photographs of this small tower taken in 1891 show that it was then almost intact.

PLATFORM AREA

This open area, lying to the west and north of the Conical Tower and the Platform, corresponds to the open areas immediately in front of the altars in old Grecian temples. This was Mr. Bent’s opinion, and possibly it answered at Zimbabwe a similar purpose of accommodating the worshippers. The area, some 120 ft. by 60 ft., has been cleared out of large trees, and of about 6 ft. of soil throughout, and floors—both cement and clay—were disclosed, also a fine circular structure of excellent granite cement, and ascended by two steps. On and close to this structure were found fragments, mainly bases, of carved soapstone beams of slender appearance, also some phalli and gold. This platform lies slightly off the north line between the Conical Tower and the Main North Entrance.

Some of the walls surrounding this area on the west and north sides, once considered to be ancient, can now be seen to cross over very old native clay huts and native copper and iron-smelting furnaces. The soil contained some phalli, which had been converted by the natives into amulets, also some Arabian glass—thirteenth and fourteenth centuries—Venetian beads, gold wire-work, beaten gold, gold scorifiers of native pottery, iron pincers, and fragments of carved soapstone bowls with geometric designs.

ENCLOSURES 6, 7, AND 10

Gold-smelting operations must have, at some late period, been extensively carried on in these enclosures, for on removing from each enclosure all débris and fallen stones to a depth of from 4 ft. to 7 ft., there were found burnishing stones of fine grain and still covered with gold, gold scorifiers with gold in the flux, cakes of gold, gold furnace slag, beaten gold, and gold dust.

At a still lower depth in No. 6 Enclosure a quantity of granite clay crucibles, showing gold richly, were met with, and these are undoubtedly of older type than the native pottery scorifiers, also some ingot moulds of soapstone of the double claw-hammer or St. Andrew’s cross pattern.

CENTRAL AREA

This area is only partially excavated, it being covered with old native-built walls which cross over bone and ash débris, old native huts, an iron furnace, and rich black mould in which the vegetable matter was still undecayed. Experimental holes and boring-rods showed that some very old foundations ran below the soil upon which the later and poorer walls are built. However, a key has now been found which will enable further excavations to be made within this area without injury to the upper walls.

SUMMIT OF MAIN EAST WALL

Along the summit of the east main wall, and only over the chevron pattern which faces east, have recently been discovered the traces of foundations of small circular towers, both on the inner and outer edges of the wall. These correspond in measurement and relative position to the small conical towers on the west wall of the Western Temple at the Acropolis Ruins, which is decorated with monoliths. Some of the best-known surveyors and practical builders in Rhodesia are prepared to certify as to the traces of these foundations. This is entirely a new discovery, as is also the fact that at one time the summit of the wall, only over the chevron pattern, bore beautifully rounded soapstone monoliths, the bases being found displaced under the ruck of loose blocks which runs along the centre of the summit of this part of the main wall. Some carved splinters of these monoliths were found at the bases of the wall. A collection of these “finds” has been sent to the Salisbury Museum.

PROBABLE AGES OF THE WALLS OF THE ELLIPTICAL TEMPLE

All the walls of the Elliptical Temple are not ancient; that is, not ancient in the sense applying to the suggested Sabæo-Arabian occupation of Rhodesia and also to that of the Solomonic gold period. The evidences pointing to this conclusion, and now for the first time available, are so obvious and general, and the ocular demonstration so positive, that one of the many popular myths concerning Great Zimbabwe must, even at the risk of committing a vandalism on cherished romantic theories and beliefs, go by the board. The writer prefers that the ruins should tell their own story, and this can now be read in the walls, in the débris heaps, and in the relics and their associated “finds” and locations.

The oldest walls of the temple for which great antiquity may be claimed are—the main east wall from north to south, the Conical Tower, the Platform, portions of the inner wall of the Parallel Passage (reconstructions are present here), and some adjoining walls, and some buried walls and foundations, and possibly some other walls on the south side, concerning which some doubt exists, as also the west wall of the West Passage, a well-built structure which once was extended at either extremity. As to the question of obviously much later walls, this is involved in the following section of this preface.

WEST WALL CONTROVERSY

The writer is fully convinced that the original west wall of the temple once extended outwards further west, and that the present west wall extending towards the south is of much more recent construction and is built on a shorter curve, _also that most of the structures of the central and western portions of the building are also of much later construction_, and this for many substantial reasons, some of which are here briefly stated:—

(_a_) The west wall is considered by all practical builders and architects to be far slighter, much inferior in construction, fuller of defects, and to contain to a greater extent ill-shaped stones than the main wall on the east side, while the foundations are at many points far more irregular, and the batter-back of the interior face of the west wall is less severe than is the case of the east side. Lengths of 25 ft. each of both walls have been examined and compared and photographed, and the number of defects of construction recorded. The number of false and “straight joints,” false and disappearing courses, and stones supported at their corners by granite chips, which the west wall contains, is roughly about forty odd to every one of such defects in the east wall, which is _the_ architectural marvel for symmetry, grand proportion, true courses of most carefully selected and assorted blocks (some of which have been dressed with metal tools) of any other ancient architectural features at Zimbabwe. All this is an ocular demonstration, and is commented upon by the most casual visitor to these ruins. This, too, is very patent when seen from the summit of Zimbabwe Hill, the view looking down upon the temple revealing most obviously the different characters of the walls.

(_b_) In 1903 the writer cleared the soil away from the gap between the older and later walls, and found that they were widely different in construction; that the later and narrower wall approached the older and well-built and wider wall at an oblique angle; and that the end of the older wall is broken and not finished off as are other ends of ancient walls. In a trench made at a distance of twelve yards west of the gap, and on the curve the older wall, if continued, would have passed, a mass of buried masonry, which might have been a portion of the old wall, was disclosed.

(_c_) Dr. Hahn, the leading expert in South Africa in chemical metallurgy, analysed the soil underlying the foundation of the west wall, and pronounced it to be composed of disintegrated furnace slag and ashes containing gold and iron. The ground to the west of the west wall has always been the spot at which gold prospectors have washed the soil for gold, and here gold crucibles and scorifiers are to be found. This soil contains 73 per cent. of silica, and would make an excellent foundation for walls, and the west wall is built right along this bed of furnace slag, which is about 2 ft. in depth, many yards wide, and extends from north to south.

(_d_) At a few feet from the exterior of the west wall, and _at a depth of four feet below the level of its foundation_, and extending as shown in trenches and cross-cuts for at least thirty yards from north to south, is a floor of granite cement laid on the formation rock, hiding its irregularities and making a perfectly level surface. The full extent of this flooring has not yet been ascertained. For two feet between the level of this cement flooring and the furnace-slag soil under the foundations of the west wall is fine silted soil. Evidently the later wall was erected at a very considerable period subsequently to the laying of the cement flooring and after the siltation of the soil, and also after the gold-smelting operations had been extensively carried on for a long period.

(_e_) No single relic of any great antiquity has been found by any explorer or prospector in the western portion of the temple, while the eastern portion has yielded at depth great quantities of phalli and of every relic believed to be associated with the earliest occupiers.

The oldest “find” in the western half of the building is pronounced by Dr. Budge to be of a period dating from between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries of this era, and other “finds” relate to the same and later periods.

WRITER’S CONCLUSIONS

The writer is now and for the above and further considerations, and after two years’ residence within the ruins, perfectly convinced of the following:—

(1) That on the departure of the ancient builders and occupiers the temple became a ruin, and remained as such for some centuries, the west wall disappearing in the meantime (as explained later); (2) that some organised Arab people, possibly a split of the numerous Arab colonies and kingdoms which existed down the East African coast, possibly of the Magdoshu kingdom, who, according to De Barros, reached Sofala (1100 A.D.), exploited the gold mines, and formed a mixed population between the Arabs and natives, or possibly the Arabs of Quiloa, who secured as suzerain power Sofala and the kingdom of the Monomotapa (Rhodesia). One of these peoples is believed to be responsible for the ruins of Inyanga, which the writer after examining these remains does not consider to be ancient in the fullest sense of the term. One of these peoples are also believed to be responsible for making the “_old_ workings,” the distinction between which and the “_ancient_ workings” must always be kept in mind, a distinction which the late Mr. Telford Edwards always pointed out and insisted upon, and concerning which recent investigations prove him to have been correct; (3) that these Arabs made Zimbabwe their headquarters, to which the washed gold dust was brought to be converted into ingots for transport; (4) that these Arabs carried on extensive gold-smelting operations at the west end of the temple in the shelter of the massive walls, which would protect them against the prevailing winds and drifting rains; (5) that _after_ carrying on these gold-smelting operations extensively and for a considerable period, they built a wall across the open space and upon their furnace-slag beds, possibly employing native labour (the Makalanga being notorious for their skill in wall building); and (6) that these Arabs also built several of the enclosures in the central and western parts of the temple to suit their special convenience, and altogether regardless of the buried foundations of the ancient builders.

DESTRUCTION OF THE ORIGINAL WEST WALL

It may be asked what caused the destruction of the original west wall. Its disappearance may be accounted for as follows. The south and west walls have for centuries borne the full brunt of all the torrential rain and storm water which rushes to these points from the Bentberg Kopjes, which lie close to the temple on the south side. This accounts for the great depth of silted soil which buries the old cement flooring. This must have washed the lower portions of the walls till the cement foundations decomposed and brought down the structure as it has done at other ruins at Zimbabwe. The writer at the commencement of his first rainy season at Zimbabwe found a large pool about 30 yds. in length, 15 yds. in breadth, and 2 ft. in depth up against the present west wall, towards which all surface water from the higher ground rushed unchanged. This had been going on every rainy season for many generations, with the result of forming large cavities under the foundations, and of keeping the wall in a constant drip with damp even at noontide, and of causing the spread of large moss over the walls, while shrubs and small trees grew out of the walls at some height from their base. Trenches and runs-off and banks soon cured this evil, and now the walls have changed from being black with damp to being grey with dryness. The moss has naturally flaked off, and the trees and shrubs in the walls are dead, owing to lack of moisture.

THE ACROPOLIS RUINS

WESTERN TEMPLE

Operations in this temple since the description of the earlier work was embodied in the text of this volume have been carried on to June, 1904. Soil to a depth of from 3 ft. to 5 ft. was removed from the whole of the eastern portion of this area. The excavations showed several layers of native clay floors one above another. The “finds” were those known to be of native origin, though not made by natives of to-day. The later or native period of gold manufacture was greatly in evidence, beaten gold, gold tacks, and gold wire being frequently met with in association with copper sheathing, copper assegai- and arrow-heads, the copper containing no alloy.

A trial hole sunk to a depth of 6 ft. below this cleared portion of the temple area, or 9 ft. below the surface as it appeared in 1903, showed in its sides the lines of several clay floors and the side of a Kafir clay hut, now quite decomposed and soft. At the bottom of the pit a rough pavement of closely-fitting stones of irregular shape and size was come upon, and the articles found were identical with those discovered at a higher level.

The clearing of the area also disclosed clay sides of huts with the remains of short walls of stone radiating from the sides of the huts. The wall which Mr. Bent considered might have been the “altar” was found to be the radiating wall of a similar hut built upon a higher level. These small radiating walls are a general feature of exceedingly old native huts found at several places at Zimbabwe.

A large circular platform of granite cement was also disclosed. This spot yielded beaten gold of native make.

A ZIMBABWE REVIVAL

The writer believes that between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries, or slightly earlier, a great influx of people took place at Zimbabwe, and that the majority of the minor ruins in the Valley of Ruins were built about this period. This is shown by the number of walls built across exceedingly old débris heaps of native origin, by the “finds” of Arabian articles on their lowest floors, and by the fact that no relic of greater age than that period has been found. Two or three of the better-built minor ruins have the appearance of greater age, and some of the relics found in this class of ruins are of the oldest type. No one who had not spent considerable time at Zimbabwe could have any possible conception of the immense population present here at a period of but a few centuries ago. The remains of their stone walls are scattered thickly over the valleys and hillsides of Zimbabwe. The Makalanga state these are all Makalanga of generations long passed away. Some are constructions by indigenous peoples, and certainly they are not ancient, though largely built of stones quarried from the ancient ruins, and the “finds” are those of old native type, including Arab articles.

PRESERVATION OF RUINS

The thanks of all scientific circles, and of South Africans generally, are due to Sir W. H. Milton, Administrator of Rhodesia, whose great interest in the preservation of the ancient monuments in these territories is well known, and to whose direction is due the recent and timely preservation work at Great Zimbabwe. The author desires to express his personal indebtedness to Sir William Milton for the adequate arrangements made by him while engaged in his recent researches at the Great Zimbabwe.

PLAN OF ELLIPTICAL TEMPLE

The clearing of the Elliptical Temple and its vicinity has enabled Mr. Franklin White, M.E., Bulawayo, to prepare the latest and so far the most perfect plan of that building, and this he has kindly placed at the service of the author.

Indebtedness is also expressed to Professor A. H. Keane, LL.D. (author of _The Gold of Ophir_), for the contribution of the _Introduction_ to this volume; to Mrs. Theodore Bent for generously permitting the use in this volume of illustrations from _The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland_; to Mr. Gray, Chief Veterinary Surgeon, Salisbury, Mr. H. S. Meilandt, Government Roads Inspector, Bulawayo, and Trooper Wenham, B.S.A.P., Victoria, for permission to reproduce certain photographs of the ruins, and also to the Directors of the British South Africa Company for permission to include the map of Rhodesia in this work.

HAVILAH CAMP, GREAT ZIMBABWE, RHODESIA, S.A. _1st June, 1904_.

INTRODUCTION

BY A. H. KEANE, LL.D.

An archæological work of absorbing interest, such as the volume here presented to the reader, needs no introduction. Nor are the following remarks meant to be taken in that sense, but only as a sort of “missing link” in the chain of evidence between past and present, between the Arabian Himyarites and the Rhodesian monuments, the forging of which the author has entrusted to me. In _The Ancient Ruins of Rhodesia_, of which _Great Zimbabwe_ is the inevitable outcome, Messrs. Hall and Neal did not discuss the problem of origins, speculation was distinctly eschewed, and although their personal views were, and are, in harmony with those of all competent observers, they made no dogmatic statement on the subject, leaving the main conclusion to be inferred from the great body of evidence which they patiently accumulated on the spot and embodied in their monumental work. In _Great Zimbabwe_, of which Mr. Hall is sole author, and the rich materials for which he has alone brought together, the same attitude of reserve is still maintained, perhaps even more severely, and therefore it is that he has now invited me to develop the argument by which, as he hopes and I believe, the wonderful prehistoric remains strewn over Southern Rhodesia, but centred chiefly in the Great Zimbabwe group, may be finally traced to their true source in South Arabia, Phœnicia, and Palestine.

In _The Gold of Ophir, whence Brought and by Whom_,[2] where several chapters are devoted to this subject, I inferred, on plausible grounds, that the Havilah of Scripture—“the whole land of Havilah where there is gold”—was the mineralised region between the Zambesi and the Limpopo, and that the ancient gold-workings of this region were first opened and the associated monuments erected by the South Arabian Himyarites, followed in the time of Solomon by the Jews and Phœnicians. I further endeavoured to show that all these Semitic treasure-seekers reached Havilah (the port of which was Tharshish, probably the present Sofala) through Madagascar, where they had settlements and maintained protracted commercial and social intercourse with the Malagasy natives; and lastly, that the produce of the mines was by them sent down to the coast and shipped at Tharshish for Ophir, the great Himyaritic emporium on the south coast of Arabia, whence it was distributed over the eastern world. It followed that the scriptural “gold of Ophir” did not mean the gold mined at Ophir, which was not, as hitherto supposed, an auriferous land, but a gold mart.[3] The expression meant the gold imported by the Jews and Phœnicians from Havilah (Rhodesia), _viâ_ Tharshish, Ophir, and Ezion-geber in Idumæa, at the head of the Red Sea.

It is needless here to recapitulate in detail the arguments that I have advanced in support of this general thesis. But I should like to point out that if one or two of them have been invalidated by my critics, several have been greatly strengthened by the fresh evidence that has accumulated since the appearance of _The Gold of Ophir_.

Of course, incomparably the most important mass of fresh evidence is that which has been brought together by Mr. Hall himself during his two years’ researches amid the central group of ruins, and is now permanently embodied in _Great Zimbabwe_. Yet the work has in a sense been but begun; it has reached down only to the ancient flooring which has still to be explored; and we are assured by Sir John Willoughby, a most competent authority, that after two months’ exploring the wonderful Elliptical Temple with a large gang of labourers, two years will yet be needed to complete the surface work of that structure alone, without touching the old floors. Mr. Hall infers that three further years will be required for the Acropolis itself, besides the “Valley of Ruins,” with the groups of buildings extending in all directions for over a mile from the temple. A mere glance at some of the finely reproduced photographs creates a sense of awe and amazement at the huge size and solidity of the containing walls with their patiently interwoven chevron and other patterns, and at the vast extent of the ground covered by these great monuments of a forgotten past. Their erection must have taken many scores of years, one might say centuries, and their builders must consequently have dwelt for many generations in the land which they so diligently exploited for its underground treasures. Here and in all the other strictly mining districts they carried on their operations in the midst of hostile native populations, as is sufficiently evident from the strongholds crowning so many strategical heights, from the formidable ramparts and the immense strength of the outer walls, everywhere rounding off in long narrow passages leading to the inner enclosures.

Under such conditions it will naturally be asked, whence did the foreign intruders obtain their food supplies? The answer to this question is suggested in _The Ancient Ruins_, where it is pointed out (p. 208) that the auriferous reefs of the central Zimbabwe district, and generally of all the districts in immediate proximity to the fortified stations, show no traces of having ever been worked for the precious metal. “Possibly the reason for the ancients ignoring the gold-reefs of this district [Zimbabwe] lies in the fact that the country round about is exceedingly well suited for agricultural purposes, the soil being rich and water plentiful, and all vegetable growths prolific and profuse. The large population of ancients, together with the enormous gangs of slaves, would naturally consume a vast quantity of grain, and this necessity would create a large agricultural class, who, for their own safety and for the protection of their crops and fruits, would naturally carry on their operations within such an area as could be safeguarded by the fortresses of Zimbabwe.”

It might at first sight be supposed that the food supplies were drawn chiefly from the extensive agricultural settlements of the Inyanga territory, on the northern slopes of Mashonaland, which drain through the Ruenga and its numerous affluents to the right bank of the Zambesi. This Inyanga district may be roughly described, from the archæological point of view, as an area of old aqueducts, of old terraced slopes, and of old ruins of a less imposing type than the Zimbabwe remains. In a notice of _The Ancient Ruins of Rhodesia_ contributed to the _Geographical Journal_ for April, 1902, I first drew attention to the surprising analogy, or rather identity, between these terraces and those of the South Arabian uplands visited by General E. T. Haig in the eighties. So close is the parallelism that Haig’s description might almost change places with Mr. Telford Edwards’ account of the Inyanga works quoted in _The Ancient Ruins_, p. 353 _sq._, as thus:—

TERRACED SLOPES TERRACED SLOPES (SOUTH ARABIA) (SOUTH AFRICA)

“In one district the whole “The extent of these ancient mountain side, for a height of terraces is astonishing, and 6,000 ft., was terraced from top there is every evidence of the to bottom. Everywhere, above, past existence of _hundreds of below, and all around, endless thousands of inhabitants_. It flights of terraced walls meet would be quite impossible to the eye. One can hardly realise convey any idea of the immensity the enormous amount of labour, of labour implied in the enormous toil, and perseverance which these number of these ancient terraces. represent. The terraced walls I saw at least 150 square miles are usually from 4 to 5 ft. in composed of kopjes from 100 to 400 height, but towards the top of ft. in height literally strewn the mountain they are sometimes with the ruins. A contemplation as much as 15 or 18 ft. They are of the enormous tonnage of stones built entirely of rough stone and earth rudely built into these laid without mortar. I reckoned terraces left me amazed. It on an average that each wall appears to be abundantly clear retains a terrace not more than that the terraces were for the twice its own height in width, purpose of cultivating cereals of and I do not think I saw a single some sort. The terraces as a rule breach in one of them unrepaired” rise up in vertical lifts of about (Haig, _Proceedings Geographical 2 or 3 ft., and extend backwards Society_, 1887, p. 482). over a distance of mostly 7 to 12 ft. The terraces are all made very flat and of dry masonry, not of hewn stone.”

But Mr. Hall, who visited the Inyanga territory in May, 1904, now finds that the terraced slopes,[4] the so-called “slave-pits,” and the other remains, although “old,” are not “ancient.” That is to say, they date not from Himyaritic times, but probably from the eleventh or twelfth century of the new era, when parts of Rhodesia were reoccupied by large numbers of Moslem Arabs from Quiloa and their other settlements along the east coast. Hence, although the terraced slopes still form a connecting link between South Africa and South Arabia, the South Arabia here in question is that, not of pre-, but of post-Koranic times.

Of course, the ruined houses and ruined aqueducts are too much obliterated to supply any clear points of comparison. But their mere presence, and especially the vast extent of ground covered by them, will suffice to confirm Mr. Telford Edwards’ estimate of the vast numbers of civilised peoples who inhabited the rich Inyanga valleys in prehistoric times, and whom we may now call Sabæans, Minæans, and others Himyarites.

Were the houses still extant, we should expect to find them covered with the same decorative mural motives as are still seen both on the Zimbabwe monuments and on the public buildings of Sana, present capital of Arabia Felix. Manzoni, who visited this city three times between the years 1877 and 1880, figures a mansion six stories high, which is richly ornamented with two such motives—the chevron and the vertical block pattern—closely resembling those everywhere occurring on the more ancient Rhodesian walls. The chevron, which is seen both in single and double courses exactly as on the great walls of the Elliptical Temple, is absolutely identical, while the block design differs only in being quite vertical at Sana, whereas it is slightly tilted, or else two rows of blocks converge to produce the herring-bone pattern on the Rhodesian walls, as at Little Umnukwana and many other places. The reader will find Manzoni’s mansion reproduced in Mr. D. G. Hogarth’s _The Penetration of Arabia_, 1904, p. 198, and he will there notice that the various motives fill up all the space between two parallel horizontal lines, as is so often the case in Rhodesia.[5] Here, therefore, style, motive, general treatment, everything corresponds between the Rhodesian remains and the decorative fancies still flourishing in Sana, heir to the cultural traditions of the neighbouring Mariaba and of the other ancient Himyaritic capitals in South Arabia.

In _The Gold of Ophir_ frequent reference is made to the relations, social and commercial, established between Palestine and Madagascar certainly as early as the time of Solomon, and possibly even during the reign of his father David. On this point I might have spoken even more confidently, for I have since received a communication from M. Alfred Grandidier, by far the greatest living authority on all things Malagasy, who calls my attention to the evidence supplied in his monumental work, _Histoire Physique, Naturelle et Politique de Madagascar_ (1901), of intercourse between the Jews and the natives of Madagascar and neighbouring islands even in pre-Solomonic days. Documents are quoted to show that the Comoros, stepping-stones between Madagascar and Rhodesia, were peopled in the reign of Solomon “by Arabs or rather by Idumæan Jews from the Red Sea,” and that the people of the great island preserve many Israelitish rites, usages, and traditions, cherish the memory of Adam, Abraham, Lot, Moses, Gideon, but have no knowledge of any of the prophets after the time of David, “which seems to show that the Jewish immigrants left their home at a very remote date, since if the exodus had been recent they could not have forgotten the great names posterior to the time of David.” Hence he concludes that “there is nothing surprising in the presence of an Idumæan colony in Madagascar, for we know that from the very earliest times the Arabs of Yemen had frequented the East African seaboard at least as far as Sofala.” These words lend further support to my identification of Tharshish with Sofala, and in a note it is added that “the Jews and Arabian Semites were not the only peoples who had formerly commercial relations with the inhabitants of the African seaboard. From time immemorial these southern waters were navigated by the fleets of the Egyptians, probably even of the Chaldeans, Babylonians, Assyrians, Phœnicians, Tyrians” (_op. cit._, p. 96). And again at p. 100: “From the earliest times the Indian Ocean was traversed by Chaldean, Egyptian, Jewish, Arab, Persian, Indian, and other vessels.”[6]

My statements regarding the long-standing relations of the Northern Semites with the peoples of Madagascar and South Africa as far as Sofala are thus fully supported by the greatest authority on the subject. But there are some minds so constituted that they seem incapable of accepting a new revelation. They can do nothing but _stare super vias antiquas_, and will strain every nerve to minimise the force of facts and arguments pointing at conclusions which run counter to their deep-rooted prejudices. I here reproduce the famous “Zimbabwe Zodiac” (Fig. 2.), which was found near Great Zimbabwe, and shows the twelve signs of the Zodiac carved round the rim, as described by the late Dr. Schlichter in the _Geographical Journal_ for April, 1890. This specialist tells us that “the signs coincide in every respect with other finds which Bent and others have made in Zimbabwe. One of the pictures is an image of the sun analogous to the sun-pictures which Mauch and Bent found on the monoliths of Zimbabwe, and _analogous also to finds in Asia Minor which belong to the Assyro-Babylonian period_.” But a writer in the _Guardian_ attempts to destroy the significance of this document by asserting that the Zodiac or its nomenclature is of Greek origin and consequently of no great age. Now the Hon. Emmeline M. Plunket has recently (1903) published a work on _Ancient Calendars and Constellations_, in which she maintains that the Babylonian Calendar, with its Zodiacal signs, dates from 6000 B.C., that is, about 8,000 years ago. It is true that this estimate is not clearly made out. But on the other hand, the reader may be assured that Miss Plunket does not hold by the “Greek” theory. Nor does F. Delitzsch, who reminds us that “when we distinguish twelve signs of the Zodiac and call them Ram, Bull, Twins, etc., in all this the Sumero-Babylonian culture is still a living influence down to the present day.”[7] Nor does Sayce, who points out that the Babylonian account of the Flood occurs in the eleventh book of the epic of Gisdhubar corresponding approximately with the eleventh sign of the Zodiac, at that time _Aquarius_, just as the fifth book records the death of a monstrous lion by Gisdhubar, answering to the Zodiacal _Leo_ and so on. He further observes that “the Zodiacal signs had been marked out and named at that remote period (certainly before 2000 B.C.), when the sun was still in Taurus at the beginning of spring,”[8] and, let me add, when the Greeks had not yet been heard of, but when the great Gnomon, or Conical Tower, had possibly already been erected by the Semitic builders of Great Zimbabwe.

That this and the numerous other conical towers still standing amid the crumbling ruins of Rhodesia are all cast in a Semitic mould will be at once seen by comparing them with the conical tower of a temple, figured on a medallion found at Byblos in Phœnicia and here reproduced (Fig. 1.). The comparison may also be extended to the two embossed cylinders—one from Great Zimbabwe, the other from the Temple of Paphos, in Cyprus, here also reproduced (Figs. 3 and 4) from Bent’s _Ruined Cities_, pp. 170, 171. These two objects, so strikingly similar in general design, reminded Bent of Herodian’s description of the sacred cone in the great Phœnician Temple of the Sun at Emessa, in Syria, which was adorned with certain “knobs or protuberances,” a pattern supposed by him to represent the sun, and common in phallic decorations, such as are constantly turning up with every shovelful of débris removed from the Zimbabwe Temple Enclosures.

But although thousands of stones have been washed and carefully examined for inscriptions, none have so far been discovered. As the inscription which stood originally above the gateway of Great Zimbabwe, as reported by the Arabs to the Portuguese pioneers early in the sixteenth century,[9] has since disappeared, there are no known written documents connecting these monuments with South Arabia or Phœnicia, except a few scratches on the rim of an earthenware vessel figured by Bent and by him supposed possibly to be of Himyaritic type.[10] As, on the other hand, South Arabia is covered with Himyaritic rock inscriptions, some of considerable length and hitherto reputed to be of great age, their absence from Rhodesia has naturally caused surprise. This negative argument has even by some of my critics been allowed to outweigh the overwhelming positive evidence derived from the monuments themselves, from the hundreds of old gold-workings already described or recorded, from the multitude of objects—phalli, birds, conic towers—which have been found in the ruins, and are, beyond all doubt, intimately associated with Semitic religious observances. But I think it may now be shown that this “negative argument” is no proof at all of non-Semitic origins, but, on the contrary, affords strong indirect evidence of the great antiquity of these Semitic remains in Rhodesia.

It is to be noticed, in the first place, that although the Phœnicians are believed to have migrated from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean about three millenniums before the New Era, no Phœnician inscriptions have yet been anywhere discovered in the Mediterranean lands older than about the seventh or the eighth century B.C. Before that time the Phœnicians, like the kindred Canaanites and Israelites, were rude, uncultured peoples, with no knowledge of letters, except, perhaps, of the hieroglyphs, cuneiforms, and other scripts of their Egyptian, Assyro-Babylonian, Hittite, and Cretan neighbours. Even the Moabite Stone, if it be genuine, is post-Solomonic, since its reputed “author” was the Moabite king, Mesha, contemporary of Jehoram of Israel and Jehoshaphat of Judah. How, then, could the unlettered Jews and Phœnicians of the time of David, Solomon, and Hiram leave any written records of themselves in Rhodesia? After that epoch the intercourse with South Africa was interrupted, because “Jehoshaphat made ships of Tharshish to go to Ophir for gold; but they went not; for the ships were broken at Ezion-geber” (1 Kings xxii. 48). And then the star of Jacob waned, and the scattering of the Ten Tribes of Israel was presently followed by the dire calamities that fell upon Judah, and put an end for ever to all further quest of treasure in the Austral seas.

In the second place I find that Semitic students are gradually coming to the conclusion that the age of the South Arabian rock inscriptions has been greatly exaggerated, especially by Glaser, whose authority was at first naturally accepted almost without demur. The language is, no doubt, Himyaritic, that is to say, the oldest known form of Arabic. But that language survived for many centuries after the New Era in the Axumite empire, Abyssinia, where it is called _Geez_, and in Yemen till some time after the Mohammedan irruption, and is still current in the island of Sokotra, and in the Mahra district east of Hadramaut, where it is called _Ehkili_. Hence the language of the inscriptions is no test of their antiquity, though many afford intrinsic evidence that they date certainly from at least a few hundred years before the New Era. The subject is at present _sub judice_, and no more can be said until the full results are known of the extensive researches now in progress throughout Yemen. Here a large number of agents of the French Ministère de l’Instruction Publique have been at work since the year 1901, and thousands of impressions or rubbings have already (1903–4) been received in Paris. Some have even begun to appear in the _Nouveaux Textes Yéménites_, edited by M. Derenbourg, and several of the inscriptions are stated to be in a hitherto unknown alphabet quite different from that of the Himyaritic document which forms the frontispiece of the _Gold of Ophir_. Great revelations may therefore be pending; but, meanwhile, so much may, I think, be safely inferred, that the Himyarites who first arrived in Rhodesia, worked the mines, and built the monuments, some dating from apparently 2000 B.C., had little or no knowledge of letters, or at least had not yet begun to cover the rocks of their South Arabian homes with well-formed and carefully constructed inscriptions. Thus is also explained the absence of all such documents from their new homes in Rhodesia, where one may now almost venture to predict that none will ever be found. Nothing can be inferred from the vanished inscription over the Great Zimbabwe gateway, since the gold-workings appear to have been resumed for a time by the later (post-Mohammedan) Arabs, who were fond of decorating the façades of their mosques and other public buildings with the ornamental but relatively recent (eighth century) Cufic characters.

Mention should perhaps here be made of Professor Gustav Oppert’s _Tharshish and Ophir_ (Berlin, 1903), in which the learned author claims to offer “a final solution” of the problem. But he leaves the question exactly as it stood over three decades ago, is still lost in the tangle of time-worn etymologies, and takes no notice at all of the revelations made by Messrs. Hall and Neal in the _Ancient Ruins_. The vast body of archæological evidence derived in recent years from the Rhodesian remains is thus completely ignored, and fresh light excluded from the only source whence it might have been drawn. On the other hand, Professor Oppert, rather than admit a Tharshish in the Indian Ocean, suggests that the _Tharshish_ of Kings and Chronicles either means “the sea,” possibly the origin of the Greek word θἁλαττα itself, or else was by the authors of those books foisted into the texts instead of Ophir. Hence where _Tharshish_ occurs as the objective of Solomon’s gold expeditions we are to read _Ophir_, although the original Ophir is allowed to have been where I place it on the south coast of Arabia. Now the Greek word θἁλαττα is Homeric, and when the Homeric poems were first sung there were no Greeks in the Indian Ocean. Hence, even if the wild etymology could be admitted, it would not serve, and this essay cannot be accepted as “a final solution of the old controversy.”[11] It is pleasant to be able to add that my solution has been accepted as final by some of Professor Oppert’s fellow-countrymen—the editor of the _Coloniale Zeitung_ amongst others—who declares that “the problem seems now really solved.”[12]

Let me conclude with a question. Those who still reject my solution, who cast about for the gold of Ophir all over the Indian Ocean—Egypt, Arabia, Persia, India—anywhere except South Africa, what do they propose doing with the hundreds of old Rhodesian workings, which are known to have yielded at least £75,000,000 in their time, and with the stupendous Semitic monuments connected with these workings, of which Mr. Hall here presents the public with scores of photographic reproductions, drawn exclusively from the central Great Zimbabwe group? Where does India, the spoilt child of the etymologists, stand beside these remains, which betray such undoubted evidence of their South Arabian origin?

GREAT ZIMBABWE[13]