Part 7
From the Anio, or its tributaries, was drawn the water which supplied the principal aqueducts of Rome, the Anio Vetus, the Marcia, the Anio Novus, and the Claudia. When the original Aqua Appia and Anio Vetus were found insufficient for the increasing wants of Rome, it was resolved to seek for a fresh supply. This was found in a stream of limpid water rising about thirty-six miles from Rome in the Marsian Mountains, and flowing into the Anio. As the water of the Vetus was often turbid after rain, and even the Piscina, or reservoir, through which it was made to pass, often failed to purify it, Quintus Marcius Rex, who was appointed to superintend the work, was desirous that the water of the new aqueduct should be taken from one of the tributaries of the river, and as near as possible to its source.
As the source was in the country beyond the Anio, the aqueduct was of course more expensive than any of the preceding ones, and the entire length of it was no less than sixty-one miles, of which several were on arches, the rest being subterranean. But, if the expense was greater, the quality of the water was superior to that of any other with which Rome was acquainted.
The aqueducts of the Anio Novus, and the Aqua Claudia, of which I have spoken, were completed in the reign of Claudius. The Aqua Claudia, which came from springs, was nearly equal in quality to the Marcia, while the two Anios were often turbid, even in fine weather, from the falling in of their banks. But Claudius improved the quality of the Anio Novus, by abandoning the river at the point from which the water had been drawn, and taking it from a lake, out of which the stream issues limpid, after having deposited the greater part of its impurities.
Altogether, according to the calculation of Fea, half the volume of Anio was abstracted by the four aqueducts which have been mentioned.
Four tributaries remain to be described--the Cremera, the Allia, the Aqua Crabra, and the Almo--streams insignificant in size, but famous in the annals of Rome, or possessing an interest for the classical scholar and the archæologist. The Cremera, a mere brook, over which an active person might leap, rises in the little lake Baccano, and flowing past the site of Veii, crosses the Flaminian way about six miles from Rome.
This brook must not be confounded with another a little higher up, and which is a rivulet unknown to fame. The Cremera is associated, as every student of Roman history is aware, with the patriotic devotion of the Fabii.
On the banks of the Allia, the “_flebilis Allia_” of Ovid, a still smaller stream, though dignified by the historians with the name of river, was fought a battle with the Gauls, in which the Romans sustained a signal defeat.
The Allia cannot be identified with certainty, but it is supposed to be a small stream flowing in a deep ravine, which joins the Tiber on the side opposite to Veii, and about three miles above Castel Guibileo, the site of the ancient Fidenæ. This stream agrees with the description of Livy.
The Aqua Crabra is generally known by the name of the Marrana, but is also called Aqua Mariana, and Marrana del Maria; Marrana being a name frequently given to brooks by the modern Romans. Thus we have Marrana della Caffarella, another name for the Almone, and Marrana di Grotta perfetta. The rivulet anciently known by the name of the Aqua Crabra rises in the heart of the Alban hills, and after passing beneath the heights on which Tusculum and Frascati are situated, turned northwards in obedience to the configuration of the ground and flowed into the Anio. But, at some unknown period after the fall of the Roman Empire, it was diverted by means of a tunnel into the channel in which it at present runs, for the purpose of turning mills and irrigating the land. The little stream, also, which flows in the valley between Marino and the ridge encircling the Alban lake, whose source is considered by some to be the Aqua Ferentina of Livy, is conveyed through a similar tunnel to swell the scanty waters of the Aqua Crabra. In ancient times this rivulet was considered of such importance to the people of Tusculum, who lived out of the way of the great aqueducts, that Agrippa, as Frontinus tells us, consented not to turn it into the “caput,” or well head, of the Aqua Julia, as he had originally proposed. It was looked upon as a treasure to be doled out in measures to the thirsty people of Tusculum, and was often contended for by legal proceedings. Cicero, in his _Oration de lege Agraria, III, 2_, informs us that he paid rates to the authorities of Tusculum for his share of the precious fluid. And in his _Oration pro Balbo, ch. 22_, he refers to a litigation with the municipality which furnished the water, probably on account of the deficient supply. In this action “he was in the habit,” he tells us, “of consulting the lawyer, Tugio, on account of his long experience in similar cases.” Tugio seems to have justified his choice, and to have frightened the municipality into granting a more abundant supply, for we find Cicero in his letter to Tiro, observing, “that now there was more water than enough.” “I should like to know,” he says, “how the business of the Aqua Crabra is going on, though now indeed there is more water than enough.”
The Almo is the stream which flows in the valley of Caffarella, close to the Nymphæum, which does duty for the grotto of Egeria. Its most remote source is about six miles from Rome, in the direction of Albano, and this is usually dry; so that the Almo is with great propriety called “_brevissimus_,” in comparison with the other rivers which Ovid is enumerating. The perennial source is at Aqua Santa, not more than three miles from the city. The stream that rises in the valley between Marino and the Alban lake is represented in most maps as flowing into the Almo. It is really diverted by a tunnel into the Aqua Crabra. At the junction of the Almo with the Tiber were washed every year, the statue of the Goddess Cybele, her chariot and the sacred instruments of her worship.
Among the remaining tributaries of the Tiber may be enumerated the Farfarus, which is a torrent joining the Tiber a little above Correse. Also the little stream, the Aqua Albana, which is discharged by the emissary of the Alban Lake, a work executed 393 years before Christ.
THE SHANNON
ARTHUR SHADWELL MARTIN
The greatest body of running water in the British Isles has long claimed and received the love, admiration and praise of natives and foreigners. Its banks are fringed with ruins of castles, round towers, abbeys and churches, and its islands and hills reek with historical associations, pagan folklore and mediæval tradition. Steamers now run practically from its mouth to its source, and to the tourist all its beauties are now displayed. The enthusiasm of foreigners over the beautiful stream equals that of Erin’s own sons. Writing in 1844, Johann Georg Kohl said:
“Well may the Irish speak of the ‘_Royal_ Shannon,’ for he _is_ the king of all their rivers. A foreigner, when he thinks of some of our large continental streams, may at first consider the epithet somewhat of an exaggeration, but let him go down this glorious river and its lakes, and he will be at no loss to understand that royal majesty, in the matter of rivers, may be quite independent of length or extent.
“The British Islands certainly can boast of no second stream, the beauties of whose banks could for a moment be compared to those of the Shannon.
“At his very birth he is broad and mighty, for he starts on his course strong with the tribute of a lake (Lough Allen), and traverses the middle of Ireland, in a direction from north-east to south-west. Thrice again he widens out into a lake; first into the little Lough Boffin, then into the larger Lough Ree, and lastly, when he has got more than half way to the ocean, into the yet longer Lough Derg. Below Limerick he opens into a noble estuary, and when at length he falls into the sea between Loop Head and Kerry Head, the glorious river has completed a course of two hundred and fourteen English miles. The greater part of the Shannon runs through the central plain which separates the mountainous north from the mountainous south.
“It was on a beautiful day that I embarked to descend the Shannon. Flowing out of a lake, and forming several other lakes in its progress, the water is extremely clear and beautiful. The movement is in general equable, excepting a few rapids which are avoided by means of canals. The banks, too, are pleasing to the eye. Large green meadows stretch along the sides of the river, and villages alternate with handsome country seats, surrounded by their parks. Herons abound along the margin, and many of these beautiful birds were continually wheeling over us in the air, their plumage glittering again in the rays of the sun.
“We arrived at Banagher. Then gliding along by Redwood Castle and the beautiful meadows of Portumna, we left the town of Portumna to our right, and entered the waters of Lough Derg. The steamer in which we had hitherto travelled was of small dimensions, with a wheel under the stern, to allow of its passing through some canals of no great breadth; but on the broad lake a new and larger vessel prepared to receive us. The two steamers came close to one another, to exchange their respective passengers, and their manœuvre, as they swept round on the wide water, pleased me much.
“Of the lakes that like so many rich pearls are strung upon the silver thread of the Shannon, Lough Ree and Lough Bodarrig, lying in a level country, and in a great measure surrounded by bogs, present little that is pleasing to the eye. Lough Allen is situated almost wholly within the mountainous districts of the north, and a large portion of Lough Derg is made picturesque by the mountains of the south. Like all Irish lakes, Lough Derg contains a number of small green islands, of which the most renowned is Inniscaltra, an ancient holy place, containing the ruins of seven venerable churches of great antiquity, and the remains of one of those remarkable columnal erections known in Ireland under the name of “round towers.” We passed the sacred isle at the distance of a mile and a half, but we could very distinctly make out all its monuments by the aid of a telescope.”
It is not every visitor to Shannon’s shores that has unqualified praise for the scenery. Thus speaking of the sites selected by the saints of old for their retreats, Cæsar Otway exclaims: “What a dreary place is Glendalough! what a lonely isle is Inniscaltra! what a hideous place is Patrick’s Purgatory! what a desolate spot is Clonmacnoise! From the hill of Bentullagh on which we now stood, the numerous churches, the two round towers, the curiously overhanging bastion of O’Melaghlin’s Castle, all before us to the south, and rising in relief from the dreary sameness of the surrounding red bogs, presented such a picture of tottering ruins and encompassing desolation as I am sure few places in Europe could parallel.”
The traveller who wants to see the most accessible beauties of the Shannon usually starts at Limerick and leaves the river at Athlone, though some go as far as Carrick on Shannon. The chief loughs traversed are Derg and Ree; and the only towns of any importance are Killaloe, Portumna and Athlone.
About eight miles above Limerick are the Rapids or Falls of Doonass, where the Shannon pours an immense body of water, which above the rapids is forty feet deep and 300 yards wide, through and above a congregation of huge rocks and stones that extend nearly half a mile, and offers not only an unusual scene, but a spectacle approaching much nearer to the sublime than any moderate-sized stream can offer even in the highest cascade.
Castleconnell is beautifully situated on the east bank. It has a popular Spa, and is a famous centre for salmon fishing. The castle, from which the town is named, stands on an isolated rock in the middle of the town. It was anciently the seat of the O’Briens. When Ginkell, William the Third’s General, took the castle, he caused it to be dismantled. Castleconnell is famous for its salmon fishing and eel weirs. The Castleconnell fishing rods are famed all over the world.
Eight miles above Castleconnell near the entrance to Lough Derg is Killaloe.
The navigation from Limerick to Killaloe is carried on by canal so as to avoid the rapids of Killaloe and Castleconnell. Killaloe is a charmingly placed village, but it is probably best known as the place above all others in Ireland dear to the heart of the angler. The fine old cathedral, on the site of a much older church, dates from the Twelfth Century. The Choir is used as the parish church. Commencing at Killaloe is Lough Derg, an expansion of the Shannon to the proportions of a lake. The Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York made a trip up Lough Derg to Banagher in the summer of 1897, and the route is now known as the “Duke of York” route.
As every one knows, the Shannon is much the largest river in the United Kingdom. Its breadth, where it expands into the long narrow lakes that mark so much of its course, stretches to as much as thirteen miles. Lough Derg, the first of these expanded stretches, is twenty-three miles long, and exceedingly picturesque. Its shining surface, overshadowed by blue hills, is broken here and there by woody islands famous in history and song. Killaloe itself takes its name from the ruined church on the island below the twelve-arched bridge (“the church on the water”). The salmon fisheries here are very important and profitable, and--which is probably more interesting to the traveller--the river is free to every one who possesses a rod and line.
It was here, at the lower end of Lough Derg, that Brian Boru’s palace of Kincora once stood, in the Ninth Century. The mound on which it was built is all that remains of a place that displayed, 1,200 years ago, the utmost glory of the fierce, proud Irish kings. The ruined castle of Derry crowns another small islet; and Holy Island, thirty acres in extent, is a spot full of interest. Like Glendalough, it was chosen out, early in the Christian era, for a retreat of piety and learning. One cannot but observe the excellent taste in scenery displayed by the monks of ancient days, in selecting these peaceful refuges from a stormy world. What can be more lovely than the vale of the seven churches, or than Innisfallen Island? and Holy Island compares not at all ill with these still more famous places. St. Caimin, in the early part of the Seventh Century, settled here, and built a monastery, which soon became famous for its learning. Seven different churches afterwards grew up on the island, and one of the most beautiful round towers in Ireland still raises its head seventy feet above the waters of the lake, among the ruins of these sacred places. This part of the lake is crowded with islands, and the ruined castles and monasteries are very numerous. At the town of Portumna, some miles further on, another stop is made, as the castle and abbey are particularly well worth seeing. This was another spot celebrated for its learning. The monastery of Tirdaglass, whence many manuscripts issued, was founded by St. Columba in the Sixth Century. At Clonmacnoise, further on, the traveller may see the cradle of the ancient art and learning of Ireland, and the most important seat of religion in early days. St. Cearan (early Sixth Century) is especially associated with the spot; the great cathedral was built in his honour, and the holy well, dedicated to the Saint, is still the object of constant pilgrimage. Round towers, ancient Irish crosses, ruined churches and monasteries, are here in abundance. The ancient city of Clonmacnoise has disappeared altogether. This is a place of the greatest possible interest to antiquarians, and even ordinary travellers will find much pleasure in the beauty of the picturesque ruins.
At Banagher is the fortified bridge of seven arches, protected by two towers and a battery. This is all the more interesting, for, not being an antiquity in any sense, it was finished in 1843, as a matter of fact.
Above Lough Derg, the country is fertile, but not especially striking until Lough Ree is reached. This second great expansion of the river fairly rivals the first in beauty. Of its twenty-seven islands, the most attractive is Inis Clothran, on which the famous Queen Maev of Connaught spent her declining years. She is said to have built a splendid stone house for herself here, and lived on the island until she died, at the age of a hundred and two. Some ruins still remain to mark the spot, although the date of Queen Maev goes back nearly two thousand years. Antiquarians consider that Shakespeare’s fairy Queen Mab was a development of the many legends told about this powerful, wicked, and fascinating Queen of far-off days.
Portumna, at the head of the lake, commands fine views of Lough Derg, and the hilly land to the west. After leaving this town the scenery becomes dull and monotonous till we reach Meelick, where the river is so devious that a canal rejoins the Shannon at the mouth of the Little Brosna. Immediately above, the stream begins to divide and becomes very tortuous till Banagher is reached.
At the upper end of Lough Ree is Lanesborough, a small town with a fine bridge of six arches and a swivel arch. From this point the sail to Tarmonbarry presents little beauty or interest. The country is generally a wide extent of bog, abounding in remains of trees and the extinct Irish elk. Opposite Tarmonbarry, the Royal Canal, communicating with Dublin, joins the Shannon. When the river again widens into Lough Forbes, the Seven Churches of Kilbarry come into view: only three and part of a round tower are now standing. Lough Forbes is triangular in shape, and the shores are low boggy land not destitute of a certain quiet beauty. Lough Boderg shaped like a T is the only remaining sheet of water before reaching Carrick on Shannon where the tourist’s voyage generally ends.
THE DANUBE
I. BOWES
Next to the Volga, the Danube is the largest river in Europe, and for volume of water and commercial importance it far exceeds that river. It is estimated that the Danube carries more water to the sea than all the rivers of France.
The river rises at the head of a pleasant little valley high up in the mountains of the Black Forest; coming tumbling down the rocks a tiny stream of clear water, and, gathering strength and volume from numerous springs and rivulets, it cuts a deep channel into the rich soil and dances gaily along, presently to be joined by the Brigach and its twin-sister, the Brege, which rise about ten miles further to the south. These are the highest sources of the mighty River Danube, the great water highway of Europe, celebrated for ages in legend and song and in ancient and modern history for important military events, and, in its flow of nearly 2,000 miles to the Black Sea, unfolding the most remarkable panoramas of natural beauty known to the geographer; whilst on its banks may be found groups of the most interesting nationalities of the world.
Donaueschingen, a tidy little town in the Grand Duchy of Baden, is sometimes called the source of the Danube. It is situated about a mile and a half below the point where the Brigach and the Brege join the river, which from this point is called the Donau or Danube, and it is the head of the navigation for small boats on the upper river. Between here and Ulm there are twenty-one weirs and dams, and many pleasant villages, pretty little towns, ruined castles, and princely residences; amongst the latter may be named Hohenzollern, near Sigmaringen, the seat of the Imperial family of Prussia. The scenery in the locality of the castle is of great beauty, and the town, pleasantly situated on the banks of the river, has a charming appearance.
The river below Sigmaringen flows through a broad, fertile valley, and with a quicker current, as the banks have been partially canalized; and small towns, with names of wondrous length and ponderous sound, such as Munderkingen, Kiedlingen, Reichenstein, etc., suggest places that are or have been of great importance. In the distance the great tower of the Cathedral of Ulm is seen rising up out of the low horizon. Ulm is a great military stronghold, and the old town a maze of narrow, crooked streets. The Cathedral is said to be next in size to that at Cologne, and is a fine specimen of Gothic architecture, with the highest stone tower in the world.
Below Ulm several smaller towns are passed before reaching Ratisbon, a city of 40,000 inhabitants, famous for many historical events. The Cathedral of Saint Peter is one of the architectural glories of Germany. Freight steamers, barges, tugboats, and passenger steamers abound on this part of the river. Long flat boats sixty feet long, such as we see on the Rhine, pass down to the Lower Danube, laden with grain, timber, etc.
Linz, with its 500,000 inhabitants, is an interesting town; and the river scenery, between here and Vienna, is said to rival the Rhine scenery, the hills being more varied in outline and the slopes richer in verdure.
At Vienna the river is more crowded still, and is crossed by some fine road and railway bridges; and many show sights are here, such as cathedrals, historical buildings, etc., and more than a fair share of _cafés_, theatres and music-halls. In this respect it rivals Paris, and, some say, exceeds it in wickedness.
After leaving Vienna, Hainburg, Kieben and Presburg (with its 50,000 inhabitants), where the Hungarian kings have for ages been crowned, are passed; then Komorn, and through the fertile plains of Hungary to Buda Pesth, a beautiful, prosperous city, with a population of 500,000. It is said that the extensive quays facing the river and the imposing buildings are the finest on the whole course of the Danube. Lower down the river the inhabitants on either bank show distinct traces of Magyar descent.
And now leaving the Hungarian territory for Servia, Belgrade with its great fortress comes in sight. Many parts of the city are Turkish in appearance, and the inhabitants are a mixture of Hungarians, Turks and Servians.
About sixty miles below Belgrade the river leaves the Hungarian plains, and at Bazias the chief hindrances to the navigation of the Danube begin and extend to Sibb, a distance of about eighty-two miles. The obstructions may be divided into four sections, viz:--No. 1. The Stenka Rapids; No. 2. The Kozla Dojke; No. 3. The Greben Section; and No. 4. The Iron Gates. The first named rapids are about 1,100 yards long; nine miles lower down the second section--about one and a half miles long--begins, and the river is narrowed from about 1,000 yards in width to about 300 and in some places 170 yards. These rapids are caused by rocks in the bed of the river, some of which are almost dry at low water, extending nearly across it, and causing sudden alterations in the currents and dangerous whirlpools and eddies.
At Greben, four miles lower down, there were formidable obstacles to be overcome, and some of the heaviest work in the undertaking had to be faced; for at this point a spur of the Greben Mountain juts out into the river, and suddenly reduces its width at low water. When the snow and ice in the upper reaches of the river melt, or in heavy rain, the river rapidly rises, and, being blocked by these obstacles, causes damaging floods in the fertile valleys of Hungary.
Below the Greben rapids the river widens out to about one and a half miles, and passing the cutting and training walls at the rapids of Jucz enters the Kazan defile, which is said to be the most picturesque part of the Lower Danube. The cliffs, of great height, approach nearer and nearer to each other, until the river is contracted to 120 yards wide.