Part 2

In 1801, Lord Dundas revived Mr. Miller's project, and availed himself of Mr. Symington's increased experience and the further improvements in the steam engine, to construct a much more perfect steam-boat than any that had been made. He spent £3,000 in the experiments, and in March, 1802, his vessel, called the "Charlotte Dundas," was tried on the same scene of action, the Forth and Clyde Canal. This boat, according to Symington's report, towed two vessels, each of seventy tons burthen, a distance of nineteen miles and a half in six hours, against a strong wind. The threatened injury to the banks of the canal by the great agitation of the water prevented the use of this boat, which was consequently laid aside; for the views of the inventors of steam-boats in the first instance were limited to their employment to drag boats along canals.

We now approach a period when more decided advances and more rapid progress were made towards realizing steam navigation as a practical fact. Mr. Fulton, an American, residing in France, after making a number of experiments, under the sanction and with the assistance of Mr. Livingstone, the American Ambassador, launched a small steam-boat on the Seine in 1803, but the weight of the engine proved too great for the strength of the boat, which broke in the middle, and immediately went to the bottom.

Not disheartened by this failure he built another one, longer and stronger, and this he succeeded in propelling by steam power, though very slowly. It was, indeed, a much less successful effort than the attempts of Mr. Miller and Lord Dundas. Having been threatened with opposition by M. le Blanc, the patentee of steam-boats in France, Fulton determined to return to his native country, where the large navigable rivers and lakes offered ample scope for the development of steam navigation. Having heard of the success of Symington's boats, he visited Scotland for the purpose of profiting by his experience; and he induced Symington, by promises of great advantages if the invention succeeded in America, to show him the "Charlotte Dundas" at work, and to enter into full explanations of every part. Thus primed with the facts, and with the further suggestions of Symington, Fulton repaired to New York. Mr. Livingstone, who had assisted Fulton in his experiments, was himself an inventor of several plans of propelling vessels by steam, and in 1798 he obtained a patent in the State of New York, for twenty years, on condition that he should produce a steam-boat by the 7th of March, 1799, that would go at the rate of _four_ miles an hour. Having failed to fulfil that condition, the patent privilege was left open, and was promised to the first inventor who succeeded in propelling a boat by steam power at the proposed speed of four miles an hour. Fulton, who had entered into partnership with Mr. Livingstone, possessed advantages in the construction of the vessel he built in America, far greater than any previous inventor. He had not only gained knowledge by his former failures, but he was able to profit by the experience of others, and he had secured a superior steam engine, manufactured by Boulton and Watt, of twenty-horse power. This was a much more powerful engine than any that had been used in any former experiment; the one employed by Mr. Livingstone having had only five-horse power. This steam-vessel was launched at New York in 1807, and was called the "Clermont," the name of Mr. Livingstone's residence on the banks of the Hudson. Its length was 133 feet, depth 7 feet, and breadth 18 feet. The boiler was 20 feet long, 7 feet deep, and 8 feet broad. There was only one steam cylinder, which was 2 feet in diameter, with a length of stroke of 4 feet. The paddle-wheels were 15 feet in diameter, and 5 feet broad; and the burthen of the vessel was 160 tons. Crowds of spectators assembled to see the boat start on its first experimental voyage. The general impression, even of those who were friendly to Fulton, was that it would fail, and an accident which occurred when the vessel was under way confirmed this opinion. The foreboders of evil exclaimed immediately that they had "foreseen something of the kind;" and observed "it was a pity so much expense had been incurred for nothing!" The required repairs were, however, soon made. The vessel when again tried cut her way bravely through the water, to the astonishment of all, and the doubts, and fears, and lamentations were quickly changed into congratulations.

As the "Clermont" urged its way up the Hudson, its chimney emitting innumerable sparks from the dried pine wood used as fuel, it excited great alarm among those who were not prepared for such an apparition. An American paper of that day thus described the effect produced on the crews of other ships in the river:--"Notwithstanding the wind and tide were adverse to its approach, they saw with astonishment that it was rapidly coming towards them; and when it came so near that the noise of the machinery and paddles was heard, the crews, in some instances, shrunk beneath their decks from the terrific sight, or left their vessels to go on shore; whilst others prostrated themselves and besought Providence to protect them from the approach of the horrible monster which was marching on the waves, and lighting its path by the fires which it vomited."

During the time that Fulton was building his steam-boat Mr. R. L. Stevens, of Hoboken, in the State of New Jersey, was also engaged in a similar undertaking. Though his name is comparatively little heard of in the history of Steam Navigation, his efforts were more successful than any that had been made previously, and but for the fortunate chance to Fulton that he was able to launch and put his boat in action a few days before Stevens had completed his, all, and more than all, the merit that is now ascribed to the former would have been attributed to Stevens. The previous successful experiment of Fulton having fulfilled the conditions imposed by the State of New York, he obtained the exclusive right of steam navigation on the rivers and along the coast of that State; therefore, after Stevens had launched his boat on the Hudson, he was unable to employ it there. In this predicament he ventured on the hazardous experiment of taking his steam-vessel by sea, and successfully accomplished his voyage from New York to Delaware. This was the first attempt to put to sea in a steam-boat.

Mr. Stevens introduced many important improvements. He increased the length of stroke of the engines; he applied upright guides for the piston-rod, to supply the place of the parallel motion; and he divided the paddle-wheel by boards, by which means a more uniform motion was obtained. By these improvements he succeeded in raising the speed of steam-vessels to thirteen miles an hour.

Whilst Steam Navigation was making such progress in America, it was not neglected in this country. Mr. Henry Bell, of Glasgow, a man of great ingenuity, had for some time directed his attention to the subject, and had given some useful hints to Fulton. Seeing, as he afterwards said, no reason why others should profit by his plans without his participation in the fame and the profits, he determined to build a steam-boat himself, which was completed and launched in 1811. Bell called his boat the "Comet," in commemoration of the remarkable eccentric luminary which was at that time frightening Europe from its propriety. The boat was 25 tons burthen, with an engine of about 3-horse power. It plied on the Frith of Forth for a distance of 27 miles, which in ordinary weather it accomplished in 3½ hours. The "Comet" is generally supposed to have been the first steam-boat that plied regularly in Europe; and its construction was so perfect, that no boat built for many years afterwards surpassed it, taking into consideration its size and the small power of its engine. Bell, though he had done so much to advance Steam Navigation in this country, was allowed to suffer neglect and penury in his old age, till the town of Glasgow granted him a small annuity for his services.

A claim has been preferred on behalf of Messrs. Furnace and Ashton, of Hull, to priority in building the first steam-vessel that was worked in England. It is stated, that "about the year 1787, experiments were made on the river Hull, by Furnace and Ashton, on the propulsion of vessels by steam power. Furnace and Ashton built a boat, which plied on the river, between Hull and Beverley, for some time, and answered exceedingly well. In consequence of the good results of their experiments, they built a much larger vessel and engine, and sent the whole to London, to be put together and finished; after which it was subjected to the severest tests, and gave the greatest satisfaction. The vessel was bought by the Prince Regent (afterwards George IV.), who had it fitted and furnished as a pleasure yacht; but it was soon afterwards burnt, having, it is supposed, been wilfully set on fire by persons who were afraid that such an invention would be injurious to their calling. The Prince was so much pleased with the invention and ingenuity of Furnace and Ashton, that he granted them a pension for their lives of £70 a year each."[1] This steamer was on the paddle-wheel principle, propelled by a steam engine, to which was attached a copper boiler.

From this time forward the progress of Steam Navigation was very rapid. Steam-ships were built longer and larger, and with more powerful engines; and the most skilful builders rivalled each other in the construction and adaptation of their vessels and engines, so as to attain the highest possible speed. The locality in which Steam Navigation may be said to have had its birth continued for a long time to be pre-eminent, and steam-boats built on the Clyde still rank very high, if not the highest, in the scale of excellence.

The ordinary land steam engine required considerable alterations to adapt it to marine purposes; nor was it till great experience had been gained in propelling vessels by steam power, that the more essentially requisite modifications were adopted. It was found important, in the first place, to reduce the space occupied by the machinery as much as possible. The boilers were consequently made of less dimensions, but more extensive in their heating surface. It was also found desirable to employ two engines instead of one, the pistons being made to rise and descend alternately. By this means the motion was rendered more equable, and by placing the cranks of the common shaft at right angles, the "dead points" were passed more readily, and the want of a fly wheel was thus compensated.

The steam-boats employed in this country were, almost from the first, and continue with few exceptions to be, on the low-pressure condensing principle; the whole of the machinery being placed below the deck. This renders it necessary to diminish the height of the engines as much as possible; and in all marine steam engines, till within the last twenty years, instead of having a working beam over the cylinders, a cross-head was placed at the top of the piston-rod, the action of which was conveyed by parallel motions to cross beams on each side, which were situated at the bottom part of each engine. The motion, compared with that of an ordinary land engine, was thus inverted. The proportions of the cylinders were also different; the length of stroke being shorter, to diminish the height, and the diameter consequently greater. The valves, and the gearing connected with them, the air pump, the condenser, and other subsidiary parts, do not differ essentially from those of land engines; but the governor is omitted, as it is found impracticable to work a marine engine with great regularity.

Latterly, many engineers have introduced, with much success, arrangements for communicating the action directly from the piston-rod to the crank, without the intervention of the beam and parallel motions. This is generally done by causing the piston-rod to work between guides, and a jointed arm connects it with the crank. One method of producing the same effect is to make the cylinders oscillate on pivots, as contrived by Mr. Murdoch, in the first model steam carriage, made in 1784. This principle has been successfully carried into operation by Messrs. Penn, of Greenwich. The oscillating cylinders accommodate themselves to the varying directions of the cranks, and the strain occasioned by guide rods is diminished; but when very large cylinders are required, the friction and the pressure on the pivots must tend to counterbalance the advantage otherwise obtained.

In the ordinary paddle-wheel steam-boats, the floats of the paddle-wheels are fixed at equal distances round the rim, radiating from the centre; therefore they enter and come out of the water obliquely. There is, consequently, a considerable loss of power attending the use of such paddle-wheels, as only one float at a time can be acting vertically on the water, and exerting the propelling force in a direct line. Several attempts have been made to remedy this defect, and to produce what is called "feathering" floats, every one of which will act against the water at right angles. The mechanism required for making this adjustment is, however, liable to get out of order, and the introduction of vertically acting floats has consequently been very limited.

The large projecting paddle-boxes are objectionable in sea-going ships, as they present so large a surface to the action of the wind, and either impede the course of the ship, or make it unweatherly. This inconvenience was experienced in the early progress of Steam Navigation, and many attempts were made to overcome it, by substituting a different kind of propeller. Recourse was had to the inventions of the ancients, from whom the paddle-wheel was taken, to find some other means of propulsion. A method of propulsion, similar in principle to the action of sculls at the back of a boat, had been contrived long before the inconvenience of paddle-wheels in Steam Navigation was experienced. In 1784, Mr. Bramah obtained a patent for a propeller similar in its forms to the vanes of a windmill, which by acting obliquely on the water as it revolved, pushed the boat forward. Ten years afterwards, an "aquatic propeller" was patented by Mr. William Lyttleton, a merchant in London. It consisted of a single convolution of a three-threaded screw, and may be considered to be the first screw propeller invented. Numerous other ingenious persons, among whom were Tredgold, Trevethick, Maceroni, and Millington, afterwards invented propellers on the screw principle; but none of them were sufficiently satisfactory in their results to come into practical use.

In 1836, Mr. Smith and Mr. Ericsson obtained a patent for a screw propeller, which nearly resembled Mr. Lyttleton's original contrivance; and by perseverance in struggling against the many obstacles with which he had to contend, Mr. Smith succeeded, though all previous efforts had failed. His partner, however, became disheartened by the obstacles thrown in their way, and left this country for America before the success of the screw was established.

The first ship fitted with the screw propeller was called the "Archimedes." It was a vessel of 237 tons burthen, with a draught of water of 9 feet 4 inches. The screw projected at the stern, and being turned rapidly round by the steam engine, the oblique action of the thread of the screw against the water impelled the vessel forward.

The "Archimedes" was originally fitted with a single-threaded screw, the threads of which were 8 feet apart, and there were two convolutions of the screw round the shaft. One convolution of the screw having been accidentally broken off, the ship was found to go faster in consequence; and, following the course of investigation suggested by the accident, Mr. Smith at last adopted a double-threaded screw, with only half a convolution. The average performance of the engines was 26 strokes per minute, and the number of revolutions of the screw in the same time was 138½. The "pitch" of the screw was 8 feet; that is, the space across one entire convolution of the thread would have measured 8 feet; consequently, had it been acting against a solid body, as a cork-screw when entering a cork, one revolution of the shaft would have advanced the vessel 8 feet, and the speed would have been 12½ miles an hour; but the utmost speed the "Archimedes" obtained was 9¼ nautical miles. The difference was owing to the screw "slipping" in the water, because the fluid yielded to the oblique action of the blades.

The results of the working of that experimental ship were so satisfactory, that other ships were soon built, with modifications of the form of the propeller. It was found disadvantageous to have an entire convolution of the thread of the screw; for one part of it worked in the wake of the other, and resistance was produced by the backwater. After numerous experiments, in which the dimensions of the screw were successively diminished, the propeller was at length reduced to two oblique blades. Experiments on a large scale were conducted by Captain Carpenter, to determine the size and angle of inclination best adapted for the purpose of propulsion; and nearly all the ships now built for the Royal Navy are fitted with propellers on his principle. The annexed diagram represents on a scale of one-eighth of an inch to a foot, the form of the propeller of the "Agamemnon," of 606-horse power, which was recently engaged in successfully laying down the Atlantic Telegraph cable. The diameter of the screw is 18 feet, and the pitch 20 feet.

The screw propeller possesses great advantages in ships of war, as it is not exposed to damage by shot, and it leaves the entire deck clear for mounting guns. It has also the further advantage of not interfering with the working of sails, and is, therefore, admirably adapted for sea-going ships that economize fuel by alternately steaming and sailing, as the wind is adverse or favourable. The commotion in the water made by paddle-wheels, which is an objection to their use in narrow rivers, is avoided by screw propellers, which being immersed under the water, make little agitation on the surface, and the ships move along without any apparent impelling power.

The speed of ships with the best constructed screw propellers is fully equal to that of paddle-wheel vessels; and when two vessels of the same size, and with engines of equal power, one fitted with paddles, and the other with the screw, are fastened stem and stern together, in a trial of strength, the screw propeller has been found to have the advantage, and to pull its antagonist along at the rate of one or two miles an hour.

The difficulty at first experienced in the application of the screw propeller was to communicate a sufficiently rapid motion to the shaft to which it is fixed; but, by the employment of direct-acting engines, this difficulty has been for the most part overcome. The power is generally first applied to drive a large cog-wheel, the teeth of which take into the teeth of a smaller cog-wheel fixed to the propeller shaft, and in this manner the velocity is sufficiently increased.

In 1852 the proportion of screw to paddle-wheel vessels building in the Clyde was as 43 to 30. The advantages of the propeller are becoming every year more appreciated, and it is rapidly superseding the paddle-wheel.

In the steam-boats of the United States the engines are constructed on the high-pressure principle; and by working with steam of the pressure of 100 pounds on the square inch, and with larger paddle-wheels, their boats attain a speed exceeding sixteen miles an hour. But numerous explosions of boilers on the North American rivers have operated as a caution against the introduction of high-pressure engines in steam-boats in this country. The dread of high-pressure steam was early impressed by the destructive explosion of the boiler of a steam-vessel at Norwich in 1817, which led to a long parliamentary inquiry into the subject; and the subsequent loss of life by the explosion of the "Cricket" on the Thames, has tended to strengthen the apprehension of high-pressure steam engines. For river use, however, when fresh water is always at command for generating the steam, there appears to be no more cause for fear of high-pressure engines in boats than on railways, provided the boilers are constructed with sufficient care. The experiments made by Mr. Fairbairn on the strength of boilers, the results of which were communicated at the meeting of the British Association in 1853, prove, that by increasing the number and strength of the "stays," or internal supports, of the boilers, they may be made, if sufficiently strong, to resist any possible pressure; and that the square shape, which was supposed to be the weakest, offers, on the contrary, peculiar facilities for giving increased strength. In one of these experiments made to determine the ultimate strength of the flat surfaces of boilers, when divided into squares of sixteen inches area, the boiler did not give way until it had sustained the enormous pressure of 1,625 pounds on the square inch.

It might be desirable, in the construction of steam boilers, to adopt the same principle that is introduced in the building of gunpowder mills, one-half of which is built in strong masonry, whilst the other is made of wood. By this means, when an explosion does occur, much less damage is done, for the lighter part only is blown away, which does little injury. In the same manner, steam engine boilers might be constructed with a small portion comparatively weaker, so that if it gave way there would not be much damage done. Safety-valves are intended to act in that manner; and if they were properly constructed, they would sufficiently answer the purpose, and guard against the possibility of danger; but the numerous accidents that occur with boilers provided with imperfect safety-valves, show that there is a necessity for some more effectual protection. Engineers are not sufficiently alive to the importance of improvements in this respect. They supply an engine with safety-valves, which would answer the purpose if kept in proper condition; but they do not make effectual provision against careless management and reckless misconduct. Some years since, a gentleman in America sent to the author a description, with drawings, of a safety-valve that combined the principles of the safety-plug without its inconvenience; it being so contrived that when the boiler became too hot, it melted some fusible metal which previously held down the valve, and then a weight pulled it open to allow an ample escape of steam; but when the heat was lowered, the valve again closed. This was shown to an eminent engineer for his opinion. He pronounced it to be very ingenious, and that it would, no doubt, answer the purpose; but he said, "_An improved safety-valve is not wanted_, those in use being quite sufficient for the purpose."