Part 7
_Both men were wrong_. Let us omit _men_ and say, _Both were wrong_. You see the meaning is not changed--_both_ is here equivalent to _both men_, that is, it performs the office of an adjective and that of a noun. It is therefore an +Adjective Pronoun+. Let the teacher further illustrate the office of the adjective pronoun by using the words _each, all, many, some, such_, etc.
DEFINITIONS.
CLASSES OF NOUNS.
+A _Common Noun_ is a name which belongs to all things of a class+.
+A _Proper Noun_ is the particular name of an individual+.
CLASSES OF PRONOUNS.
+A _Personal Pronoun_ is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+.
+A _Relative Pronoun_ is one that relates to some preceding word or words, and connects clauses+.
+An _Interrogative Pronoun_ is one with which a question is asked+.
+An _Adjective Pronoun_ is one that performs the offices of both an adjective and a noun+.
LESSON 72.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Build each of the following groups of nouns into a sentence. See Rule, Lesson 15.
webster cares office washington repose home marshfleld.
george washington commander army revolution president united states westmoreland state virginia month february.
san francisco city port pacific trade united states lines steamships sandwich islands japan china australia.
Write five simple sentences, each containing one of the five personal pronouns: _I, thou_ or _you, he, she_, and _it_.
Write four complex sentences, each containing one of the four relative pronouns: _who, which, that_, and _what_.
_What_ is used as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is omitted. The word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent. When we express the antecedent, we use _which_ or _that_. I shall do _what_ is required; I shall do the _thing which_ is required, or _that_ is required.
Build three interrogative sentences, each containing one of the three interrogative pronouns: _who, which_, and _what_.
Build eight sentences, each containing one of the following adjective pronouns: _few, many, much, some, this, these, that, those_.
LESSON 73.
CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say _large, round, sweet, yellow oranges_, the words _large, round, sweet_, and _yellow_ modify the word _oranges_ by telling the _kind_, and limit the application of the word to oranges of that kind.
When I say _this orange, yonder orange, one orange_, the words _this, yonder_, and _one_ do not tell the kind, but simply point out or number the orange, and limit the application of the word to the orange pointed out or numbered.
Adjectives of the first class describe by giving a quality, and so are called +Descriptive adjectives+.
Adjectives of the second class define by pointing out or numbering, and so are called +Definitive adjectives+.
Let the teacher write nouns on the board, and require the pupils to modify them by appropriate descriptive and definitive adjectives.
DEFINITIONS.
+A _Descriptive Adjective_ is one that modifies by expressing quality+.
+A _Definitive Adjective_ is one that modifies by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity+.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Place the following adjectives in two columns, one headed _descriptive_, and the other _definitive_, then build simple sentences in which they shall be employed as _modifiers_. Find out the meaning of each word before you use it.
Round, frolicsome, first, industrious, jolly, idle, skillful, each, the, faithful, an, kind, one, tall, ancient, modern, dancing, mischievous, stationary, nimble, several, slanting, parallel, oval, every.
Build simple sentences in which the following _descriptive_ adjectives shall be employed as _attribute complements_. Let some of these attributes be _compound_.
Restless, impulsive, dense, rare, gritty, sluggish, dingy, selfish, clear, cold, sparkling, slender, graceful, hungry, friendless.
Build simple sentences in which the following _descriptive_ adjectives shall be employed.
Some of these adjectives have the _form_ of _participles_, and some are _derived_ from _proper nouns_.
+CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--An Adjective derived from a proper noun must begin with a capital letter+.
Shining, moving, swaying, bubbling, American, German, French, Swiss, Irish, Chinese.
LESSON 74.
CLASSES OF VERBS.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_The man caught_ makes no complete assertion, and is not a sentence. If I add the object complement _fish_, I complete the assertion and form a sentence--_The man caught fish_. The action expressed by _caught_ passes over from the man to the fish. _Transitive_ means _passing over_, and so all those verbs that express an action that passes over from a doer to something which receives, are called +Transitive verbs+.
_Fish swim_. The verb _swim_ does not require an object to complete the sentence. No action passes from a doer to a receiver. These verbs which express action that does not pass over to a receiver, and all those which do not express action at all, but simply _being_ or _state of being_, are called +Intransitive verbs+.
Let the teacher write transitive and intransitive verbs on the board, and require the pupils to distinguish them.
When I say, I _crush_ the worm, I express an action that is going on now, or in present time. I _crushed_ the worm, expresses an action that took place in past time. As _tense_ means _time_, we call the form _crush_ the _present tense_ of the verb, and _crushed_ the _past tense_. In the sentence, The worm _crushed_ under my foot died, _crushed_, expressing the action as assumed, is, as you have already learned, a participle; and, as the action is completed, we call it a _past participle_. Now notice that _ed_ was added to _crush_, the verb in the present tense, to form the verb in the past tense, and to form the past participle. Most verbs form their past tense and their past participle by adding _ed_, and so we call such +Regular verbs+.
I _see_ the man; I _saw_ the man; The man _seen_ by me ran away. I _catch_ fish in the brook; I _caught_ fish in the brook; The fish _caught_ in the brook tasted good. Here the verbs _see_ and _catch_ do not form their past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present, and so we call them _Irregular verbs_.
Let the teacher write on the board verbs of both classes, and require the pupils to distinguish them.
DEFINITIONS.
CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING.
+A _Transitive Verb_ is one that requires an object+. [Footnote: The _object_ of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the action, may be the _object complement_, or it may be the subject; as, Brutus stabbed _Caesar_, _Caesar_ was stabbed by Brutus.]
+An _Intransitive Verb_ is one that does not require an object+.
CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM.
+A _Regular Verb_ is one that forms its past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present+. [Footnote: If the present ends in _e_, the _e_ is dropped when _ed_ is added; as, lov_e_, lov_ed_; believ_e_, believ_ed_.]
+An _Irregular Verb_ is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present+.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Place the following verbs in two columns, one headed _transitive_ and the other, _intransitive_. Place the same verbs in two other columns, one headed _regular_ and the other, _irregular_. Build these verbs into sentences by supplying a subject to each intransitive verb, and a subject and an object to each transitive verb.
Vanish, gallop, bite, promote, contain, produce, provide, veto, secure, scramble, rattle, draw.
Arrange the following verbs as before, and then build them into sentences by supplying a subject and a noun attribute to each intransitive verb, and a subject and an object to each transitive verb.
Degrade, gather, know, was, became, is.
A verb may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another. Use the following verbs both ways.
+Model+.--The wren _sings_ sweetly.
The wren _sings_ a pretty little song.
Bend, ring, break, dash, move.
LESSON 75.
CLASSES OF ADVERBS.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say, He will come _soon_, or _presently_, or _often_, or _early_, I am using, to modify _will come_, words which express the _time_ of coming. These and all such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Time+.
He will come _up_, or _hither_, or _here_, or _back_. Here I use, to modify _will come_, words which express _place_. These and all such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Place+.
When I say, The weather is _so_ cold, or _very_ cold, or _intensely_ cold, the words _so, very_, and _intensely_ modify the adjective _cold_ by expressing the _degree_ of coldness. These and all such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Degree+.
When I say, He spoke _freely, wisely_, and _well_, the words _freely, wisely_, and _well_ tell how or _in what manner_ he spoke. All such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Manner+.
Let the teacher place adverbs on the board, and require the pupil to classify them.
DEFINITIONS.
+_Adverbs of Time_ are those that generally answer the question+, _When?_
_+Adverbs of Place are those that generally answer the question+, Where?
+Adverbs of Degree are those that generally answer the question+, To what extent?
+Adverbs of Manner are those that generally answer the question+, In what way?_
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Place the following adverbs in the four classes we have made--if the classification be perfect, there will be five words in each column--then build each adverb into a simple sentence.
Partly, only, too, wisely, now, here, when, very, well, where, nobly, already, seldom, more, ably, away, always, not, there, out.
Some adverbs, as you have already learned, modify two verbs, and thus connect the two clauses in which these verbs occur. Such adverbs are called _+Conjunctive Adverbs+_.
The following _dependent_ clauses are introduced by _conjunctive adverbs_. Build them into complex sentences by supplying _independent clauses_.
_when_ the ice is smooth; ------ _while_ we sleep; ------ _before_ winter comes; ------ _where_ the reindeer lives; ------ _wherever_ you go.
LESSON 76.
CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. [Footnote: For classified lists, see pp. 190,191.]
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump_. Here the three nouns are of the same rank in the sentence. All are subjects of _can jump. War has ceased, and peace has come_. In this compound sentence, there are two clauses of the same rank. The word _and_ connects the subjects of _can jump_, in the first sentence: and the two clauses, in the second. All words that connect words, phrases, or clauses of the _same rank_ are called +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+.
_If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. I will go, because you need me_. Here _if_ joins the clause, _you have tears_, as a modifier, expressing condition, to the independent clause, _prepare to shed them now;_ and _because_ connects _you need me_, as a modifier, expressing reason or cause, to the independent clause, _I will go_. These and all such conjunctions as connect dependent clauses to clauses of a _higher rank_ are called +Subordinate Conjunctions+.
Let the teacher illustrate the meaning and use of the words _subordinate_ and _co-ordinate_.
DEFINITIONS.
+_Co-ordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank+.
+_Subordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect clauses of different rank+.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Build four short sentences for each of the three _co-ordinate conjunctions_ that follow. In the first, let the conjunction be used to connect principal parts of a sentence; in the second, to connect word modifiers; in the third, to connect phrase modifiers; and in the fourth, to connect independent clauses.
And, or, but.
Write four short complex sentences containing the four _subordinate conjunctions_ that follow. Let the first be used to introduce a noun clause, and the other three to connect adverb clauses to independent clauses.
That, for, if, because.
LESSON 77.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
What new subject begins with page 95? Name and define the different classes of nouns. Illustrate by examples the difference between common nouns and proper nouns. Name and define the different classes of pronouns. Can the pronoun _I_ be used to stand for the one spoken to?--the one spoken of? Does the relative pronoun distinguish by its _form_ the speaker, the one spoken to, and the one spoken of? Illustrate. Can any other class of pronouns be used to connect clauses?
For what do interrogative pronouns stand? Illustrate. Where may the antecedent of an interrogative pronoun generally be found? _Ans.--The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun may generally lie found in the answer to the question_.
Name and define the different classes of adjectives. Give an example of each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their meaning. Give an example of each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their form. Give an example of each class.
Name and define the different classes of adverbs. Give examples of each kind. Name and define the different classes of conjunctions. Illustrate by examples.
Are prepositions and interjections subdivided? (See "Schemes" for the conjunction, the preposition, and the interjection, p. 188.)
+To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement-- Selection from Dr. John Brown.
We suggest that other selections from literature be made and these exercises continued.
MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
LESSON 78.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
You have learned that two words may express a thought, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words. You are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may sometimes be changed by simply changing its _form_. The English language has lost many of its inflections, or forms, so that frequently changes in the meaning and use of words are not marked by changes in form. These _changes_ in the _form, meaning_, and _use_ of the parts of speech, we call their +Modifications+.
_The boy shouts. The boys shout_. I have changed the form of the subject _boy_ by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has changed. _Boy_ denotes _one_ lad; _boys_, _two or more_ lads. This change in the form and meaning of nouns is called +Number+. The word _boy_, denoting one thing, is in the +Singular Number;+ and _boys_, denoting more than one thing, is in the +Plural Number+.
Let the teacher write other nouns on the board, and require the pupils to form the plural of them.
DEFINITIONS.
+_Modifications of the Parts of Speech_ are changes in their form, meaning, and use+.
NUMBER.
+_Number_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing or more than one+.
+The _Singular Number_ denotes one thing+.
+The _Plural Number_ denotes more than one thing+.
+RULE.--The _plural_ of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ to the singular+.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Tree, bird, insect, cricket, grasshopper, wing, stick, stone, flower, meadow, pasture, grove, worm, bug, cow, eagle, hawk, wren, plough, shovel.
When a singular noun ends in the sound of _s, x, z, sh_, or _ch_, it is not easy to add the sound of _s_, so _es_ is added to make another syllable.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Guess, box, topaz, lash, birch, compass, fox, waltz, sash, bench, gas, tax, adz, brush, arch.
Many nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant form the plural by adding _es_ without increasing the number of syllables.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Hero, cargo, negro, potato, echo, volcano, mosquito, motto.
Common nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant form the plural by changing _y_ into _i_ and adding _es_ without increasing the number of syllables.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Lady, balcony, family, city, country, daisy, fairy, cherry, study, sky.
Some nouns ending in _f_ and _fe_ form the plural by changing _f_ or _fe_ into _ves_ without increasing the number of syllables.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Sheaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf, half, elf, shelf, self, wolf, life, knife, wife.
LESSON 79.
NUMBER.
From the following list of nouns, select, and write in separate columns: 1st. Those that have no plural; 2d. Those that have no singular; 3d. Those that are alike in both numbers.
Pride, wages, trousers, cider, suds, victuals, milk, riches, flax, courage, sheep, deer, flour, idleness, tidings, thanks, ashes, scissors, swine, heathen.
The following nouns have very irregular plurals. Learn to spell the plurals.
_Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural_. Man, men. Foot, feet. Woman, women. Ox, oxen. Child, children. Tooth, teeth. Mouse, mice. Goose, geese.
Learn the following plurals and compare them with the groups in the preceding Lesson.
Moneys, flies, chimneys, valleys, stories, berries, lilies, turkeys, monkeys, cuckoos, pianos, vetoes, solos, folios, gulfs, chiefs, leaves, roofs, scarfs, inches.
LESSON 80.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--GENDER.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_The lion was caged. The lioness was caged_. In the first sentence, something was said about a _male_ lion; and in the second, something was said about a _female_ lion. Modifications of the noun to denote the sex of the object, we call +Gender+. Knowing the sex of the object, you know the gender of its name. The word _lion_, denoting a male animal, is in the +Masculine Gender;+ and _lioness_, denoting a female lion, is in the +Feminine Gender+.
The names of things _without_ sex are in the +Neuter Gender+.
Such words as _cousin, child, friend, neighbor_, may be _either masculine or feminine_.
+DEFINITIONS.
_Gender_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes sex.
The _Masculine Gender_ denotes the male sex.
The _Feminine Gender_ denotes the female sex.
The _Neuter Gender_ denotes want of sex+.
The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways:--
1st. By a difference in the ending of the nouns.
2d. By different words in the compound names.
3d. By words wholly or radically different.
Arrange the following pairs in separate columns with reference to these ways.
Abbot, abbess; actor, actress; Francis, Frances; Jesse, Jessie; bachelor, maid; beau, belle; monk, nun; gander, goose; administrator, administratrix; baron, baroness; count, countess; czar, czarina; don, donna; boy, girl; drake, duck; lord, lady; nephew, niece; landlord, landlady; gentleman, gentlewoman; peacock, peahen; duke, duchess; hero, heroine; host, hostess; Jew, Jewess; man-servant, maid-servant; sir, madam; wizard, witch; marquis, marchioness; widow, widower; heir, heiress; Paul, Pauline; Augustus, Augusta.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
What new way of varying the meaning of words is introduced in Lesson 78? Illustrate. What are modifications of the parts of speech? What is number? How many numbers are there? Name and define each. Give the rule for forming the plural of nouns. Illustrate the variations of this rule. What is gender? How many genders are there? Name and define each. In how many ways are the genders distinguished? Illustrate.
LESSON 81.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--PERSON AND CASE.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_Number_ and _gender_, as you have already learned, are modifications affecting the _meaning_ of nouns and pronouns. Number is almost always indicated by the ending; gender, sometimes. There are two other modifications which refer not to changes in the _meaning_ of nouns and pronouns, but to their different _uses_ and _relations_. In the English language, these changes are not often indicated by a change of _form_.
_I Paul_ have written. _Paul, thou_ art beside thyself. _He_ brought _Paul_ before Agrippa. In these three sentences the word _Paul_ has _three different uses_. In the first, it is used as the name of the _speaker_; in the second, as the name of _one spoken to_; in the third, as the name of _one spoken of_. You will notice that the _form_ of the noun was not changed. This change in the use of nouns and pronouns is called +Person+. The word _I_ in the first sentence, the word _thou_ in the second, and the word _he_ in the third have each a different use. _I_, _thou_, and _he_ are personal pronouns, and, as you have learned, distinguish _person_ by their _form_. _I_, denoting the speaker, is in the +First Person+; _thou_, denoting the one spoken to, is in the +Second Person+; and _he_, denoting the one spoken of, is in the +Third Person+.
_Personal pronouns_ and _verbs_ are the only words that distinguish person by their form.
_The bear killed the man_. _The man killed the bear_. _The bear's grease was made into hair oil_. In the first sentence, the bear is represented as _performing_ an action; in the second, as _receiving_ an action; in the third, as _possessing_ something. So the word _bear_ in these sentences has three different uses. These uses of nouns are called +Cases+. The use of a noun as subject is called the +Nominative Case+; its use as object is called the +Objective Case+; and its use to denote possession is called the +Possessive Case+.
The _possessive_ is the only case of nouns that is indicated by a change in _form_.
A noun or pronoun used as an _attribute_ complement is in the _nominative case_. A noun or pronoun following a preposition as the principal word of a phrase is in the _objective case_. _I_ and _he_ are _nominative_ forms. _Me_ and _him_ are _objective_ forms.
The following sentences are therefore incorrect: It is _me_; It is _him_; _Me_ gave the pen to _he_.
+DEFINITIONS.
_Person_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of.
The _First Person_ denotes the one speaking.
The _Second Person_ denotes the one spoken to.
The _Third Person_ denotes the one spoken of.
_Case_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office in the sentence.
The _Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as subject or as attribute complement.
The _Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as possessive modifier.
The _Objective Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as object complement, or as principal word in a prepositional phrase+.
LESSON 82.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--PERSON AND CASE.
Tell the _person_ and _case_ of each of the following nouns and pronouns.
+_Remember_+ that a noun or pronoun used as an _explanatory modifier_ is in the same case as the word which it explains, and that a noun or pronoun used _independently_ is in the _nominative case_.
We Americans do things in a hurry. You Englishmen take more time to think. The Germans do their work with the most patience and deliberation. We boys desire a holiday. Come on, my men; I will lead you. I, your teacher, desire your success. You, my pupils, are attentive. I called on Tom, the tinker. Friends, countrymen, and lovers, hear me for my cause.
Write simple sentences in which each of the following nouns shall be used in the _three persons_ and in the _three cases_.
Andrew Jackson, Alexander, Yankees.
Write a sentence containing a noun in the _nominative_ case, used as an _attribute;_ one in the _nominative_, used as an _explanatory modifier_; one in the _nominative_, used independently.
Write a sentence containing a noun in the _objective case_, used to _complete two predicate verbs_; one used to _complete_ a _participle_; one used to _complete_ an _infinitive_; one used _with a preposition_ to make a phrase; one used as an _explanatory modifier_.
+To the Teacher+.--See pp. 183, 184.
LESSON 83.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--DECLENSION.
+DEFINITION.--_Declension_ is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and pronouns in the two numbers+.
Declension of Nouns.
LADY.