Part 2

Illustrate, by the use of _a_, _b_, and _p_, the difference between the _sounds_ of letters and their _names_. Letters are the signs of what? What is an idea? A _spoken_ word is the sign of what? A _written_ word is the sign of what? How do they differ? To what four different things did we call attention in Lesson 1?

How are _vowel_ sounds made? How are the two kinds of _consonant_ sounds made? What are vowels? Name them. What are consonants? What is artificial language, or language proper? What do you understand by natural language? What is English grammar?

What three kinds of expressions are spoken of in Lessons 3 and 4? Give examples of each. What is a sentence?

LESSON 6.

ANALYSIS.

On the following sentences, let the pupils be exercised according to the model.

+Model+.--_Intemperance degrades_. Why is this a _sentence?_ Ans.--Because it expresses a thought. Of what is something thought? Ans.--Intemperance. Which word tells what is thought? Ans.--_Degrades_.

1. Magnets attract. 2. Horses neigh. 3. Frogs leap. 4. Cold contracts. 5. Sunbeams dance. 6. Heat expands. 7. Sunlight gleams. 8. Banners wave. 9. Grass withers. 10. Sailors climb. 11. Rabbits burrow. 12. Spring advances.

You see that in these sentences there are two parts. The parts are the _+Subject+_ and the _+Predicate+_.

+DEFINITION.--The _Subject of a sentence_ names that of which something is thought+.

+DEFINITION.--The _Predicate of a sentence_ tells what is thought+.

+DEFINITION.--The _Analysis of a sentence_ is the separation of it into its parts+.

Analyze, according to the model, the following sentences.

+Model+.--_Stars twinkle_. This is a _sentence_, because it expresses a thought. _Stars_ is the _subject_, because it names that of which something is thought; _twinkle_ is the _predicate_, because it tells what is thought.

+To the Teacher+.--After the pupils become familiar with the definitions, the "Models" may be varied, and some of the reasons maybe made specific; as, "_Plants_ names the things we tell about; _droop_ tells what plants do," etc.

Guard against needless repetition.

1. Plants droop. 2. Books help. 3. Clouds float. 4. Exercise strengthens. 5. Rain falls. 6. Time flies. 7. Rowdies fight. 8. Bread nourishes. 9. Boats capsize. 10. Water flows. 11. Students learn. 12. Horses gallop.

LESSON 7.

ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--I will draw on the board a heavy, or shaded, line, and divide it into two parts, thus:

| ===========|============ |

We will consider the first part as the sign of the _subject_ of a sentence, and the second part as the sign of the _predicate_ of a sentence.

Now, if I write a word over the first line, thus--(doing it)--you will understand that that word is the subject of a sentence. If I write a word over the second line, thus--you will understand that that word is the predicate of a sentence.

Planets | revolve ============|=========== |

The class can see by this picture that _Planets revolve_ is a sentence, that _planets_ is the subject, and that _revolve_ is the predicate.

These signs, or illustrations, made up of straight lines, we call +Diagrams+.

+DEFINITION.--A _Diagram_ is a picture of the offices and relations of the different parts of a sentence+.

_Analyze_ and _diagram_ the following sentences.

1. Waves dash. 2. Kings reign. 3. Fruit ripens. 4. Stars shine. 5. Steel tarnishes. 6. Insects buzz. 7. Paul preached. 8. Poets sing. 9. Nero fiddled. 10. Larks sing. 11. Water ripples. 12. Lambs frisk. 13. Lions roar. 14. Tigers growl. 15. Breezes sigh. 16. Carthage fell. 17. Morning dawns. 18. Showers descended. 19. Diamonds sparkle. 20. Alexander conquered. 21. Jupiter thunders. 22. Columbus sailed, 23. Grammarians differ. 24. Cornwallis surrendered.

* * * * *

LESSON 8.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

You have now learned to analyze sentences, that is, to separate them into their parts. You must next learn to put these parts together, that is, to _build sentences_.

We will find one part, and you must find the other and do the building.

+To the Teacher+.--Let some of the pupils write their sentences on the board, while others are reading theirs. Then let the work on the board be corrected.

Correct any expression that does not make _good sense_, or that asserts something not strictly true; for the pupil should early be taught to _think accurately_, as well as to write and speak grammatically.

Correct all mistakes in _spelling_, and in the use of _capital letters_ and the _period_.

Call attention to the agreement in form of the predicate with the subject. See Notes, p. 163.

Insist on neatness. Collect the papers before the recitation closes.

+CAPITAL LETTER-RULE.--The first word of every sentence must begin with a _capital letter_+.

+PERIOD--RULE.--A _period_ must be placed after every sentence that simply affirms, denies, or expresses a command+.

Construct sentences by supplying a _subject_ to each of the following _predicates_.

Ask yourself the question, What swim, sink, hunt, etc.?

1. ---- swim. 2. ---- sinks. 3. ---- hunt. 4. ---- skate. 5. ---- jingle. 6. ---- decay. 7. ---- climb. 8. ---- creep. 9. ---- run. 10. ---- walk. 11. ---- snort. 12. ---- kick. 13. ---- flashes. 14. ---- flutters. 15. ---- paddle. 16. ---- toil. 17. ---- terrifies. 18. ---- rages. 19. ---- expand. 20. ---- jump. 21. ---- hop. 22. ---- bellow. 23. ---- burns. 24. ---- evaporates.

This exercise may profitably be extended by requiring the pupils to supply _several_ subjects to each predicate.

LESSON 9.

SENTENCE-BUILDING--Continued.

Construct sentences by supplying a _predicate_ to each of the following _subjects_.

Ask yourself the question, Artists do what?

1. Artists ----. 2. Sailors ----. 3. Tides ----. 4. Whales ----. 5. Gentlemen ----. 6. Swine ----. 7. Clouds ----. 8. Girls ----. 9. Fruit ----. 10. Powder ----. 11. Hail ----. 12. Foxes ----. 13. Water ----. 14. Frost ----. 15. Man ----. 16. Blood ----. 17. Kings ----. 18. Lilies ----. 19. Roses ----. 20. Wheels ----. 21. Waves ----. 22. Dew ----. 23. Boys ----. 24. Volcanoes ----. 25. Storms ----. 26. Politicians ----. 27. Serpents ----. 28. Chimneys ----. 29. Owls ----. 30. Rivers ----. 31. Nations ----. 32. Indians ----. 33. Grain ----. 34. Rogues ----. 34. Volcanoes ----. 35. Rome ----. 36. Briars ----.

This exercise may be extended by requiring the pupils to supply several predicates to each subject.

LESSON 10.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

Of what two parts does a sentence consist? What is the subject of a sentence? What is the predicate of a sentence? What is the analysis of a sentence?

What is a diagram? What rule for the use of capital letters have you learned? What rule for the period?

Impromptu Exercise.

Let the pupils "choose sides," as in a spelling match. Let the teacher select _predicates_ from Lesson 8, and give them alternately to the pupils thus arranged. The first pupil prefixes to his word whatever suitable subjects he can think of, the teacher judging of their fitness and keeping the count. This pupil now rises and remains standing until some one else, on his side or the other, shall have prefixed to his word a greater number of apt subjects. The strife is to see who shall be standing at the close of the match, and which side shall have furnished the greater number of subjects. The exercise may be continued with the _subjects_ of Lesson 9. Each pupil is to be limited to the same time--one or two minutes.

LESSON 11.

ANALYSIS.

The +_predicate_+ sometimes contains +_more than one word_+.

_Analyze_ and _diagram_ according to the model.

+Model+.--_Socrates was poisoned_.

Socrates | was poisoned ============|================ |

This is a sentence, because it expresses a thought. _Socrates_ is the subject, because ----; _was poisoned_ is the predicate, because ----. [Footnote: The word _because_--suggesting a reason--should be dropped from these "+Models+" whenever it may lead to mere mechanical repetition.]

1. Napoleon was banished. 2. Andre was captured. 3. Money is circulated. 4. Columbus was imprisoned. 5. Acorns are sprouting. 6. Bells are tolled. 7. Summer has come. 8. Sentences may be analyzed. 9. Clouds are reddening. 10. Air may be weighed. 11. Jehovah shall reign. 12. Corn is planted. 13. Grammarians will differ. 14. Snow is falling. 15. Leaves are rustling. 16. Children will prattle. 17. Crickets are chirping. 18. Eclipses have been foretold. 19. Storms may abate. 20. Deception may have been practiced. 21. Esau was hated. 22. Treason should have been punished. 23. Bees are humming. 24. Sodom might have been spared.

LESSON 12.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

+To the Teacher+.--Continue oral and written exercises in agreement. See Notes, pp. 163,164.

Prefix the little helping words in the _second column_ to such of the more important words in the _third column_ as with them will make complete predicates, and join these predicates to all subjects in the _first column_ with which they will unite to make good sense.

1 | 2 | 3 -------------|-----------------|------------ Burgoyne | are | woven. Henry Hudson | was | defeated. Sparrows | can be | condensed. Comets | is | inhaled. Time | have been | worn. Turbans | may be | slacked. Lime | has been | wasted. Steam | could have been | seen. Air | must have been | deceived. Carpets | were | quarreling.

LESSON 13.

Point out the _subject_ and the predicate of each sentence in Lessons 28, 31, 34.

Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting _who_ or _what_ before this _predicate_, the _subject_ may easily be found.

+To the Teacher+.--Most violations of the rules of concord come from a failure to recognize the relation of subject and predicate when these parts are transposed or are separated by other words. Such constructions should therefore receive special attention. See Notes, pp. 164, 165.

Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the close of this recitation. See "Hints for Oral Instruction."

See "Suggestions for COMPOSITION EXERCISES," p. 8, last paragraph.

LESSON 14.

CLASSES OF WORDS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--By the assistance of the few hints here given, the ingenious teacher may render this usually dry subject interesting and highly attractive. By questioning the pupil as to what he has seen and heard, his interest may be excited and his curiosity awakened.

Suppose that we make an imaginary excursion to some pleasant field or grove, where we may study the habits, the plumage, and the songs of the little birds.

If we attempt to make the acquaintance of every little feathered singer we meet, we shall never get to the end of our pleasant task: but we find that some resemble one another in size, shape, color, habits, and song. These we associate together and call them sparrows.

We find others differing essentially from the sparrows, but resembling one another. These we call robins.

We thus find that, although we were unable to become acquainted with each _individual_ bird, they all belong to a few _classes_, with which we may soon become familiar.

It is so with the words of our language. There are many thousand words, all of which belong to eight classes.

These classes of words are called +Parts of Speech+.

We classify birds according to their form, color, etc., but we group words into _classes_, called +Parts of Speech+, with respect to their use in the _sentence_.

We find that many words are names. These we put in one class and call them +Nouns+.

Each pupil may give the name of something in the room; the name of a distinguished person; a name that may be applied to a class of persons; the name of an animal; the name of a place: the name of a river; the name of a mountain; the name of something which we cannot see or touch, but of which we can think; as, _beauty_, _mind_.

Remind the pupils frequently that these _names_ are all _nouns_.

NOUNS.

+DEFINITION.--A _Noun_ is the name of anything+.

Write in columns, headed _nouns_, the names of domestic animals, of garden vegetables, of flowers, of trees, of articles sold in a dry goods store, and of things that cannot be seen or touched; as, _virtue_, _time_, _life_.

Write and arrange, according to the following model, the names of things that can _float_, _fly_, _walk_, _work_, _sit_, or _sing_.

_Nouns_. Cork | Clouds | +Model+.--Wood + floats or float. Ships | Boys |

Such expressions as _Cork floats_ are _sentences_, and the nouns _cork_, _ship_, etc., are the subjects. You will find that _+every subject+ is a +noun+ or some word or words used for a noun_.

Be prepared to analyze and parse the sentences which you have made. _Naming the class to which a word belongs is the first step in parsing_.

+Model for Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because -----; _cork_ is the subject, because -----; _floats_ is the predicate, because -----.

+Parsing+.--_Cork_ is a _noun_, because it is the name of a thing--the bark of a tree.

LESSON 15.

Select and write all the nouns in the sentences given in Lessons 28, 31, 34.

Tell why they are nouns.

In writing the nouns, observe the following rule.

+CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--Every proper or individual name must begin with a capital letter+.

+To the Teacher+.--See Notes, pp. 167-169.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

With respect to what, do we classify words (Lesson 14)? What are such classes called? Can you illustrate this classification? What are all names? What is a noun? What is the first step in parsing? What is the rule for writing individual names?

LESSON 16.

VERBS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--We propose to introduce you now to another class of words. (The teacher may here refer to the talk about birds.)

You have learned that one very large class of words consists of _names of things_. There is another very important class of words used to tell what these things _do_, or used to _express_ their _existence_.

When I say, _Plants grow_, is _grow_ the name of anything? +P+.--No. +T+.--What does it do? +P+.--It tells what plants _do_. It _expresses action_.

+T+.--When I say, _God is_, what does _is_ express? +P+.--It expresses _existence_, or _being_.

+T+.--When I say, _George sleeps_, _sleeps_ expresses _being_ and something more; it tells the condition, or _state_ in which George is, or exists, that is, it expresses _state of being_.

All the words that assert _action, being_, or _state of being_, we call +Verbs+.

Let the teacher write nouns on the board, and require the pupils to give all the words of which they can think, telling what the things named can do. They may be arranged thus:--

_Noun_. _Verbs_. | grow, | droop, Plants + decay, | flourish, | revive.

Each pupil may give a verb that expresses an action of the body; as _weep, sing_; an action of the mind; as, _study, love_; one that expresses being or state of being.

+DEFINITION.--A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being+.

The office of the verb in all its forms, except two (the participle and the infinitive, see Lessons 48 and 49), is to +_assert_+. This it does whether the sentence affirms, denies, or asks a question.

+To the Teacher+.--In the exercises of this and the next two Lessons, let the pupils note the agreement of the verb with its subject. See Notes, pp. 163-165.

Supply, to each of the following _nouns_, as many appropriate _verbs_ as you can think of.

Let some express _being_ or _state of being_.

Water ----. Wind ----. Pens ----. Parrots ----. Vines ----. Farmers ----. Trees ----. Ministers ----.

One verb may consist of _two, three_, or _four_ words; as, _is singing, will be sung, might have been sung_.

Form _verbs_ by combining the words in columns 2 and 3, and add these verbs to all the _nouns_ in column 1 with which they appropriately combine.

1 | 2 | 3 -------|------------------|------------ Laws | has been | published. Clouds | have been | paid. Food | will be | restored. Health | should have been | preserved. Taxes | may be | collected. Books | are | obeyed.

The examples you have written are sentences; the _nouns_ are _subjects_, and the _verbs_ are _predicates_.

As verbs are the only words that assert, _+every predicate+ must be a +verb+, or must contain a verb_.

Be prepared to _analyze and parse five of the sentences_ that you have written.

+Model+.--_Laws are obeyed_. Diagram and analyze as in Lesson 11.

+Parsing+.--_Laws_ is a noun, because----; _are obeyed_ is a _verb_, because it asserts action.

LESSON 17.

Select and write all the verbs in the sentences given in Lessons 28, 31, 34, and tell why they are verbs.

LESSON 18.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

From the following nouns and verbs, build as many sentences as possible, taking care that every one makes good sense.

Poems, was conquered, lambs, rebellion, stars, forests, shone, were seen, were written, treason, patriots, meteors, fought, were discovered, frisk, Cain, have fallen, fled, stream, have crumbled, day, ages, deer, are flickering, are bounding, gleamed, voices, lamps, rays, were heard, are gathering, time, death, friends, is coming, will come.

+To the Teacher+.--Before this recitation closes, let the teacher open up the subject of Lesson 19. See "Hints for Oral Instruction."

LESSON 19.

PRONOUNS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--We propose to introduce you now to the _third part of speech_. +T.--+If I should ask who whispered, and some boy should promptly confess, what would he say? +P.--+_I_ whispered. +T.--+Would he mention his own name? +P.--+No. +T.--+What word would he use instead? +P.--+_I_.

+T.--+Suppose that I had _spoken to_ that boy and had accused him of whispering, how should I have addressed him without mentioning his name? +P.--+_You_ whispered. +T.--+What word would be used instead of the name of the boy _to_ whom I spoke? +P.--+_You_.

+T.--+Suppose that, without using his name, I had told you what he did, what should I have said? +P.--+_He_ whispered. +T.--+What word would have been used instead of the name of the boy _of_ whom I spoke? +P.--+_He_.

(Repeat these questions and suppose the pupil to be a girl.)

+T.--+If I should tell that boy to close his book, when his book was already closed, what would he say without mentioning the word book? +P.--+_It_ is closed.

+T.--+If I should accuse several of you of whispering, and one should speak for himself and for the others whispering with him, what would he say? _We_ whispered.

+T--+Suppose that a boy should inform me that all of the boys on that seat had whispered, what would he say? +P.--+_They_ whispered.

_I, you, he, she, it, we_, and _they_ are not names, but they are used instead of names. We call such words +Pronouns+.

+DEFINITION.--A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a noun+.

+CAPITAL LETTERS--RULE.--The words _I_ and _O_ should be written in capital letters+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model.--+_You will be rewarded_.

+Oral Analysis--+This is a sentence, because----; _you_ is the subject, because----; _will be rewarded_ is the predicate, because----.

+Parsing.--+_You_ is a _pronoun_, because it stands for the name of the person spoken to; _will be rewarded_ is a verb, because----.

1. We think. 2. She prattles. 3. We have recited. 4. I study. 5. You have been seen. 6. It has been decided. 7. He was punished. 8. They are conquered. 9. Thou art adored.

Compose nine similar sentences, using a pronoun for the subject of each, and diagram them.

+To the Teacher.--+Call special attention to the agreement of the verb with _I_ and _you_. See Notes, p. 164.

Before this recitation closes, explain "Modified Subject." See "Hints for Oral Instruction."

LESSON 20.

MODIFIED SUBJECT.

+Hints for Oral Instruction.--+The _Subject_ and the _Predicate_ may be considered as the foundation on which every sentence is built. No sentence can be constructed without them.

You have already learned that these parts _alone_, sometimes make a complete structure; but we are about to show you that they are often used as the foundation of a structure, which is completed by adding _other_ parts.

I hold in my hand several pieces of metal, with letters and other characters stamped on them. What do you say I have in my hand? +P+.--Money. +T.--+Yes. What other word can you use? +P.--+_Coin_. +T.--+Yes. I will write on the board this sentence: _Coin is stamped_.

The subject _coin_ is a general name for all such pieces of metal. I will write the word _the_ before this sentence. _The coin is stamped_. I have now made an assertion about one particular coin, so the meaning of the subject is limited by joining the word _the_.

I can again limit the meaning of the subject by putting the word _a_ before it. The assertion is now about one coin, but no particular one. I point to the piece near me and say, _This coin is stamped_. I point to the one farther from me and say, _That coin is stamped_.

When words are joined to the subject to limit its meaning, we say that the subject is _modified_.

The words _the, a, this_, and _that_ modify the subject by limiting the word to one coin, or to one particular coin.

We can modify the subject by joining some word which will tell what _kind_ of coin is meant.

Here is a coin dated 18--. We can say, _The new coin is stamped_. Here the word _new_ tells what kind of coin is meant. What other words can I use to modify _coin_? +P.--+_Beautiful, bright, new, round, silver_. +T.--+These words _beautiful, bright, new, round_, and _silver_ modify the subject by telling the qualities of the coin.

We call the words _the, beautiful_, etc., +Modifiers+.

+DEFINITION.--A _Modifier_ is a word or group of words joined to some part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning+.

The +_Subject_+ with its +_Modifiers_+ is called the +_Modified Subject_+.

ANALYSIS.

Analyze and diagram the following sentences.

+Model.--+_The genial summer days have come_.

days | have come =====================|============= \The \genial \summer |

+Explanation of the Diagram.--+The lighter lines, joined to the subject line, stand for the _modifiers_, the less important parts.

+Oral Analysis.--+This is a sentence, because----; _days_ is the subject, because----; _have come_ is the predicate, because----; _The, genial_, and _summer_ are _modifiers_ of the subject, because they are words joined to the subject to modify its meaning. _The genial summer days_ is the _modified subject_.

+To the Teacher.--+To excite thought and guard against mere routine, pupils may, so far as they are able, make the reasons specific. For example, "_The_ points out some particular clouds, _dark_ tells their color," etc.

Here and elsewhere the teacher must determine how far it is profitable to follow "Models." There is great danger of wasting time in repeating forms that require no mental effort.

1. The angry wind is howling. 2. The dead leaves fall. 3. The dark clouds lower. 4. The tall elm bends. 5. All men must die. 6. The lusty bellows roared. 7. A boding silence reigned. 8. Little Arthur was murdered. 9. The mighty oak was uprooted. 10. The fragile violet was crushed. 11. The beautiful marble statue was carved. 12. The turbid torrent roared. 13. The affrighted shepherds fled. 14. The vivid lightning flashes. 15. Those elegant Etruscan vases are broken.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is a verb? Give examples of verbs of action. Of being. Of state of being. May a verb consist of more than one word? Illustrate. Verbs are the only words that do what? What must every predicate contain?

What parts of speech are explained in the preceding Lessons? What is a pronoun? Give the rule for writing the words _I_ and _0_.