Part 13

on Class: Prep. Voice: Shows Rel. of _lie_ Sub-C.: Mode: to _beds_. Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:

their Class: Pro. Voice: Pos. Mod. of Sub-C.: Per. Mode: _beds_. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: M.or F. Case: Pos. Deg. of Comp.:

sick Class: Adj. Voice: Mod. of _beds_. Sub-C.: Des. Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: Pos.

beds Class: N. Voice: Prin. word after Sub-C.: Com. Mode: _on_. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: Neut. Case: Obj. Deg. of Comp.:

lie Class: Vb. Voice: ---- Pred. of _who_. Sub-C.: Ir., Int. Mode: Ind. Tense: Pres. Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:

and Class: Conj. Voice: Con. _lie_ and Sub-C.: Co-or. Mode: _waste_. Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:

waste Class: Vb. Voice: ---- Pred. of _who_. Sub-C.: Reg., Int.Mode: Ind. Tense: Pres. Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:

away. Class: Adv. Voice: Mod. of _waste_. Sub-C.: Place Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: ----

For exercises in general parsing, select from the preceding Lessons on Analysis.

LIST OF CONNECTIVES.

+Remark+.--Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some are relative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves, and connect the clauses.

CO-ORDINATE CONNECTIVES.

+_Copulative_+.--_And, both...and, as well as_, [Footnote: The _as well as_ in "He, _as well as_ I, went"; and not that in "He is _as well as_ I am."] are conjunctions proper. Accordingly, _also, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, likewise, moreover, now, so, then_, and _therefore_ are conjunctive adverbs.

+_Adversative_+.--_But_ and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper. However, _nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, still_, and _yet_ are conjunctive adverbs.

+_Alternative_+.--_Neither, nor, or, either... or_, and _neither...nor_ are conjunctions proper. _Else_ and _otherwise_ are conjunctive adverbs.

SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES.

Connectives of Adjective Clauses.

_That, what, whatever, which, whichever, who_, and whoever are relative pronouns. _When, where, whereby, wherein_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs.

Connectives of Adverb Clauses.

_Time_.--_After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, while_, and _whilst_ are conjunctive adverbs.

_Place_.--_Whence, where_, and _wherever_ are conjunctive adverbs.

_Degree_.--_As, than, that_, and _the_ are conjunctive adverbs, correlative, with adjectives or adverbs.

_Manner_.--_As_ is a conjunctive adverb, correlative often with an adjective or an adverb.

_Real Cause_.--_As, because, for, since_, and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper.

_Reason_.--_Because, for_, and _since_ are conjunctions proper.

Purpose.--_In order that, lest_ (=_that not_) _that_, and _so that_ are conjunctions proper.

_Condition_.--_Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided that_, and _unless_ are conjunctions proper.

_Concession_.--_Although, if_ (=_even if_), _notwithstanding, though_, and _whether_ are conjunctions proper. _However_ is a conjunctive adverb. _Whatever, whichever_, and _whoever_ are relative pronouns used indefinitely.

+Connectives of Noun Clauses+.

_If, lest, that_, and _whether_ are conjunctions proper. _What, which_, and _who_ are pronouns introducing questions; _how, when, whence, where_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs.

ABBREVIATIONS.

+Remarks+.--Few abbreviations are allowable in ordinary composition. They are very convenient in writing lists of articles, in scientific works, and wherever certain terms frequently occur.

Titles prefixed to proper names are generally abbreviated, except in addressing an officer of high rank. Titles that immediately follow names are almost always abbreviated.

Names of women are not generally abbreviated except by using an initial for one of two Christian names.

Abbreviations that shorten only by one letter are unnecessary; as, _Jul._ for "July," _Jno._ for "John," _da._ for "day," etc.

1_st_, 2_d_, 3_d_, 4_th_, etc., are not followed by the period. They are not treated as abbreviations.

@, At. +A. B.+ or +B. A.+ (_Artium Baccalaureus_), Bachelor of Arts. +Acct., acct.+, or +a/c+, Account. +A. D.+ (_Anno Domini_), In the year of our Lord. +Adjt.+, Adjutant. +Aet.+ or +aet.+ (aetatis), Of age, aged. +Ala.+, Alabama. +Alex.+, Alexander. +A. M.+ or +M. A.+ (_Artium Magister_), Master of Arts. +A. M.+ (_ante meridiem_), Before noon. +Amt.+, Amount. +And.+, Andrew. +Anon.+, Anonymous. +Ans.+, Answer. +Anth.+, Anthony. +Apr.+, April. +Arch.+, Archibald. +Ark.+, Arkansas. +Arizona+ or +Ariz.+, Arizona Territory. +Atty.+, Attorney. +Atty.-Gen.+, Attorney-General. +Aug.+, August; Augustus. +Av.+ or +Ave.+, Avenue. +Avoir.+, Avoirdupois. +Bart.+, Baronet. +bbl.+, Barrels. +B. C.+, Before Christ. +Benj.+, Benjamin. +Brig.-Gen.+, Brigadier-General. +B. S.+, Bachelor of Science. +bu.+, Bushels. +c+ or +ct.+, Cents. +Cal.+, California. +Cap.+, Capital. +Caps.+, Capitals. +Capt.+, Captain. +C. E.+, Civil Engineer. +cf.+ (_confer_), Compare. +Chas.+, Charles. +Chron.+, Chronicles. +Co.+, Company; County. +c/o+, In care of. +C. O. D.+, Collect on delivery. +Col.+, Colonel; Colossians. +Coll.+, College; Collector. +Conn.+, Connecticut. +Colo+, or +Col.+, Colorado. +Cr.+, Credit; Creditor. +cub. ft.+, Cubic feet. +cub. in.+, Cubic inches. +cwt.+, Hundred-weight. +d.+, Days; Pence. +Danl.+ or +Dan.+, Daniel. +D. C.+, District of Columbia. +D. C. L.+, Doctor of Civil Law. +D. D.+ (_Divinitatis Doctor_), Doctor of Divinity. +D. D. S.+, Doctor of Dental Surgery. +Dec.+, December. +Del.+, Delaware. +Deut.+, Deuteronomy. +D. G.+ (_Dei gratia_), By the grace of God. +Dist.-Atty.+, District-Attorney. +D. M.+, Doctor of Music. +do.+ (_ditto_), The same. +doz.+, Dozen. +Dr.+, Doctor; Debtor. +D. V.+ (_Deo volente_), God willing. +E.+, East. +Eben.+, Ebenezer. +Eccl.+, Ecclesiastes. +Ed.+, Edition; Editor. +Edm.+, Edmund. +Edw.+, Edward. +e. g.+ (_exempli gratia_), For example. +E. N. E.+, East-northeast. +Eng.+, English; England. +Eph.+, Ephesians; Ephraim. +E. S. E.+, East-southeast. +Esq.+, Esquire. +et al.+ (_et alibi_), And elsewhere. +et al.+ (_et alii_), And others. +et seq.+ (_et sequeniia_), And following. +etc.+ or +&c.+ (et caetera), And others; And so forth. +Ex.+, Example; Exodus. +Ez.+, Ezra. +Ezek.+, Ezekiel. +Fahr.+ or +F.+, Fahrenheit (thermometer). +Feb.+, February. +Fla.+, Florida. +Fr.+, French; France. +Fran.+, Francis. +Fred.+, Frederic. +Fri.+, Friday. +ft.+, Feet. +Ft.+, Fort. +fur.+, Furlong. +Ga.+, Georgia. +Gal.+, Galatians. +gal.+, Gallons. +Gen.+, General; Genesis. +Geo.+, George. +Gov.+, Governor. +gr.+, Grains. +h.+, Hours. +Hab.+, Habakkuk. +Hag.+, Haggai. +H. B. M.+, His (or Her) Britannic Majesty. +hdkf.+, Handkerchief. +Heb.+, Hebrews. +H. H.+, His Holiness (the Pope). +hhd.+, Hogsheads. +H. M.+, His (or Her) Majesty. +Hon.+, Honorable. +Hos.+, Hosea. +H. R. H.+, His (or Her) Royal Highness. +ib.+ or +ibid+, (_ibidem_), In the same place. +id.+ (_idem_), The same. +Idaho+, Idaho. +i.e.+ (_id est_), That is. +I. H. S.+ (_Jesus hominum Salvator_), Jesus, the Savior of Men. +Ill.+, Illinois. +in.+, Inches. +incog.+ (i_ncognito_), Unknown. +Ind.+, Indiana. +Ind. T.+, Indian Territory. +inst.+, Instant, the present month. +Iowa+ or +Io.+, Iowa. +I. O. O. F.+, Independent Order of Odd Fellows. +Isa.+, Isaiah. +Jac.+, Jacob. +Jan.+, January. +Jas.+, James. +Jer.+, Jeremiah. +Jona.+, Jonathan. +Jos.+, Joseph. +Josh.+, Joshua. +Jr.+ or +Jun.+, Junior. +Judg.+, Judges. +Kans.+ or +Kan.+, Kansas. +Ky.+, Kentucky. +l.+, Line; ll., Lines. +l.+ or +lb.+, Pounds sterling. +La.+, Louisiana. +Lam.+, Lamentations. +L.+, Latin. +lb.+ or lb-. (_libra_ or _librae_), Pound or pounds in weight. +l.c.+, Lower case (small letter). +Lev.+, Leviticus. +L. I.+, Long Island. +Lieut.+, Lieutenant. +LL. B.+(_Legum Baccalaureus_), Bachelor of Laws. +LL. D.+ (_Legum Doctor_), Doctor of Laws. +M.+ or +Mons.+, Monsieur. +M.+ (_meridies_), Noon. +m.+, Miles; Minutes. +Mad.+, Madam. +Mme.+, Madame. +Maj.+, Major. +Mal.+, Malachi. +Mar.+, March. +Mass.+, Massachusetts. +Matt.+, Matthew. +M. C.+, Member of Congress. +M. D.+ (_Medicinae Doctor_), Doctor of Medicine. +Md.+, Maryland. +mdse.+, Merchandise. +Me.+, Maine. +Mem.+, Memorandum; Memoranda. +Messrs.+, Messieurs. +Mic.+, Micah. +Mgr.+, Monseigneur. +Mich.+, Michigan; Michael. +Minn.+, Minnesota. +Miss.+, Mississippi. +Mlle.+, Mademoiselle. +Mmes.+, Mesdames. +Mo.+, Missouri. +mo.+, Months. +Mon.+, Monday. +M. P.+, Member of Parliament. +Mont.+, Montana. +Mr.+, Mister. +Mrs.+, Mistress (pronounced Missis). +MS.+, Manuscript. +MSS.+, Manuscripts. +Mt.+, Mountain. +N.+, North. +N. A.+, North America. +Nath.+, Nathaniel. +N. B.+ (_nota bene_), Mark well. +N. C.+, North Carolina. +N. Dak.+, North Dakota. +N. E.+, New England. +N. E.+, Northeast. +Nebr.+ or +Neb.+, Nebraska. +Neh.+, Nehemiah. +Nev.+, Nevada. +N. H.+, New Hampshire. +N. J.+, New Jersey. +N. Mex.+ or +N. M.+, New Mexico. +N. N. E.+, North-northeast. +N. N. W.+, North-northwest. +N. O.+, New Orleans. +No.+ (_numero_), Number, +Nov.+, November. +N. W.+, Northwest +N. Y.+, New York. +Obad.+, Obadiah. +Oct.+, October. +Ohio+ or +O.+, Ohio. +Oreg.+ or +Or.+, Oregon. +Oxon.+ (_Oxonia_), Oxford, +oz.+, Ounces. +p.+, Page, +pp.+, Pages. +Pa.+ or +Penn.+, Pennsylvania. +Payt.+ or +payt.+, Payment. +per cent+, or +per ct.+ (_per centum_) or %, By the hundred. +Ph. D.+ (_Philosophiae Doctor_), Doctor of Philosophy. +Phil.+, Philip; Philippians. +Phila.+, Philadelphia. +pk.+, Pecks. +P. M.+, Postmaster. +P. M.+ or +p. m.+ (_post meridiem_), Afternoon. +P. O.+, Post-Office. +Pres.+, President. +Prof.+, Professor. +Pro tem.+ (_pro tempore_), For the time being. +Prov.+, Proverbs. +prox.+ (_proximo_), The next month. +P. S.+, Postscript. +Ps.+, Psalms. +pt.+, Pints. +pwt.+, Pennyweights. +qt.+, Quarts. +q. v.+ (_quod vide_), Which see. +Qy.+, Query. +rd.+, Rods. +Recd.+, Received. +Rev.+, Reverend; Revelation. +R. I.+, Rhode Island. +Robt.+, Robert. +Rom.+, Romans (Book of); Roman letters. +R. R.+, Railroad. +R. S. V. P.+ (_Repondez s'il vous plait_), Answer, if you please. +Rt. Hon.+, Right Honorable. +Rt. Rev.+, Right Reverend. +S.+, South. +s.+, Shillings. +S. A.+, South America. +Saml.+ or +Sam.+, Samuel. +Sat.+, Saturday. +S. C.+, South Carolina. +S. Dak.+, South Dakota. +S. E.+, Southeast. +Sec.+, Secretary. +sec.+, Seconds. +Sep.+ or +Sept.+, September. +Sol.+, Solomon. +sq. ft.+, Square feet. +sq. in.+, Square inches. +sq. m.+, Square miles. +S. S. E.+, South-southeast. +S. S. W.+, South-southwest. +St.+, Street; Saint. +S. T. D.+ (_Sacrae Theologiae Doctor_), Doctor of Divinity. +Sun.+, Sunday. +Supt.+, Superintendent. +S. W.+, Southwest. +T.+, Tons; Tuns. +Tenn.+, Tennessee. +Tex.+, Texas. +Theo.+, Theodore. +Theoph.+, Theophilus. +Thess.+, Thessalonians, +Thos.+, Thomas. +Thurs.+, Thursday. +Tim.+, Timothy. +tr.+, Transpose. +Treas.+, Treasurer. +Tues.+, Tuesday. +ult.+ (_ultimo_), Last--last month. +U. S.+ or +U. S. A.+, United States of America; United States Army. +U. S. M.+, United States Mail. +U. S. N.+, United States Navy. +Utah+ or +U. Ter.+, Utah Territory. +Va.+, Virginia. +Vice-Pres.+, Vice-President. +viz.+ (_videlicet_), To wit, namely. +vol.+, Volume. +vs.+ (_versus_), Against. +Vt.+, Vermont. +W.+, West. +Wash.+, Washington. +Wed.+, Wednesday. +Wis.+, Wisconsin. +wk.+, Weeks. +Wm.+, William. +W. N. W.+, West-northwest. +W. S. W.+, West-southwest. +W. Va.+, West Virginia. +Wyo.+, Wyoming. +Xmas.+, Christmas. +yd.+, Yards. +y.+ or +yr.+, Years. +Zech.+, Zechariah. +& Co.+, And Company.

SUPPLEMENT.

+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+.

SELECTION FROM DARWIN.

Morren says that angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows. I have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house; so that by looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. If the ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows be suddenly removed, the end of the worm's body may very often be seen rapidly retreating.

This habit of lying near the surface leads to their destruction to an immense extent. Every morning, during certain seasons of the year, the thrushes and blackbirds on all the lawns throughout the country draw out of their holes an astonishing number of worms; and this they could not do unless they lay close to the surface.

It is not probable that worms behave in this manner for the sake of breathing fresh air, for they can live for a long time under water. I believe that they lie near the surface for the sake of warmth, especially in the morning; and we shall hereafter find that they often coat the mouths of their burrows with leaves, apparently to prevent their bodies from coming into close contact with the cold, damp earth.

+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--We will break up Mr. Darwin's first group of sentences into single sentences or single statements, each having but one predicate verb.

1. Angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows. 2. Morren says this. 3. I have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house. 4. By looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. 5. The ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows may suddenly be removed. 6. The end of the worm's body may then very often be seen rapidly retreating.

Find the two chief words (subject and predicate) in 1. What does _often_ do? What does the group of words _for hours_ do? The group _almost motionless_ describes what things? The group _close beneath the mouths of their burrows_, used like a single adverb, tells what? Find the two chief words in 2. _This_ helps out the meaning of _says_, but it is not an adverb. _This_ is here a pronoun standing for the thing said. What whole sentence does _this_ take the place of? Find the subject and the predicate verb in 3. What noun follows this verb to tell what Mr. Darwin noticed? What does _occasionally_ do? What does _same_ go with? What group of eight words tells in what way Mr. Darwin noticed this fact? Find the unmodified subject and predicate in 4. What does the second _their_ go with? What does _by looking down into their burrows_ tell? What does _just_ do? In 5, put _what_ before _may be removed_, and find two words either of which may be used as subject. What is the office of _the_, _ejected_, and the group _over the burrows_? What does _suddenly_ do? Find the subject and the predicate verb in 6. _Retreating_ helps out the meaning of the predicate and at the same time modifies the subject. Notice that _the end rapidly retreating_ is not a sentence, nor is _worms kept in pots_, in 3. _Retreating_ and _kept_ here express action, but they are not predicates; they do not assert. You learned in Lesson 16 that certain forms of the verb do not assert. _Of the worm's body_ modifies what? _Then_ and _very often_ do what?

If you will compare these numbered sentences with Mr. Darwin's, you will see how two or more sentences are put together to make one longer sentence. You see Mr. Darwin puts our sentence 1 after _says_ to tell what Morren says. What word here helps to bring two sentences together? Change this sentence about so as to make _says Morren_ come last. See how many other changes you can make in the arrangement of the words and groups of words in this sentence. What two words are used to join 3 and 4 together? Notice that these sentences are not joined so closely as 1 and 2, as is shown by the semi-colon. Notice that _if_ has much to do in joining 5 and 6. These are more closely joined than 3 and 4, but not so closely as 1 and 2. How is this shown by the punctuation? Put 5 and 6 together and change their order. Find, if you can, still another arrangement.

+To the Teacher+.--It is very important that pupils should learn to see words in groups and to note their offices. If difficulties and technicalities be avoided, such exercises as we suggest above may be begun very early. They will lead to an intelligent observation of language and will prepare the way for the more formal lessons of the text-book.

If time can be had, such exercises may profitably be continued through the second and third paragraphs of the selection above.

We have said elsewhere that the sentence exercises on this selection from Darwin may follow Lesson 30, but the teacher must determine.

+The Paragraph+.--If we write about only one thing, or one point, our sentences will be closely related to each other. If we write on two or more points, there will be two or more sets of sentences--the sentences of each set closely related to one another, but the sets themselves not so closely related. A group of sentences expressing what we have to say on a single point, or division, of our subject is called a +paragraph+. How many paragraphs do you find in the selection above? How are they separated on the page?

Let us examine this selection more carefully to find whether the sentences of each group are all on a single point and closely related, and whether the groups themselves are related. Do the sentences of the first paragraph all help to tell of a certain habit of angleworms? Do the sentences of the second paragraph tell what results from this habit? Do the sentences of the third paragraph tell what is thought to be the cause of this habit? If you can say yes to these questions, the sentences in each paragraph must be closely related. Are a habit, a result of it, and a cause of it related in thought, or meaning? If so, the paragraphs are related.

You must now see that paragraphing helps both the reader and the writer, and that we should master it.

+The Style+.--We shall not here say much about what we may call the style of the author--his way of putting his thought, or manner of expressing it. But this you will notice: his words are few, plain, and simple; the arrangement of them is easy; and so what is said is said clearly. You are nowhere in doubt about his meaning unless it be in the second paragraph. It may puzzle you to see what _their_, _they_, and _they_ in the second sentence of this paragraph stand for. Let _an astonishing number of worms_ and _out of their holes_ change places, and substitute _birds_ and _worms_ for _they_ and _they_, and see whether the meaning would be clearer. Clearness is worth all it costs. You cannot take too much pains to be understood.

+First-hand Knowledge+.--As you know, we get our knowledge in two ways. We get it by seeing and by thinking about what we see; and we get it by listening to other people and reading what they have written. What we get by seeing, by observation, is first-hand knowledge; what we get from others is second-hand knowledge. Both kinds are useful; we cannot have too much of either. But the kind that it does us most good to get and is worth most to us when got is first-hand knowledge. This especially is the kind which you should make your compositions of. In the first two paragraphs of the selection above, Darwin is telling what he saw, and in the third he is explaining what he saw. That is why what he says is so fresh and interesting.

And just one thing more. If such a man as Charles Darwin thought it worth his while to spend much time in studying and experimenting upon angleworms and then to write a large book about them, surely you need not think anything in nature beneath your notice.

ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.

Tell in two or three short paragraphs what you have observed of some worm, insect, or other creature, and what you think about it.

+To the Teacher+.--We suggest that what is said above be read by the pupils and discussed in the class, and that the substance of it be reproduced in the pupils' own language. Such reproduction will serve as a lesson in oral composition.

It may be profitable for the pupils to reproduce the selection from Darwin.

+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+.

SELECTION FROM HABBERTON--"HELEN'S BABIES."

The whistles completed, I was marched with music to the place where the "Jacks" grew. It was just such a place as boys delight in--low, damp, and boggy, with a brook hidden away under overhanging ferns and grasses.

1. The children knew by sight the plant that bore the "Jacks," and every discovery was announced by a piercing shriek of delight. 2. At first I looked hurriedly toward the brook as each yell clove the air; but, as I became accustomed to it, my attention was diverted by some exquisite ferns. 3. Suddenly, however, a succession of shrieks announced that something was wrong, and across a large fern I saw a small face in a great deal of agony. 4. Budge was hurrying to the relief of his brother, and was soon as deeply imbedded as Toddie was in the rich, black mud at the bottom of the brook. 5. I dashed to the rescue, stood astride the brook, and offered a hand to each boy, when a treacherous tuft of grass gave way, and, with a glorious splash, I went in myself.

This accident turned Toddie's sorrow to laughter, but I can't say I made light of my misfortune on that account. To fall into _clear_ water is not pleasant, even when one is trout-fishing; but to be clad in white trousers and suddenly drop nearly knee-deep into the lap of mother earth is quite a different thing.

I hastily picked up the children and threw them upon the bank, and then strode out, and tried to shake myself, as I have seen a Newfoundland dog do. The shake was not a success--it caused my trouser's legs to flap dismally about my ankles, and sent the streams of treacherous ooze trickling down into my shoes. My hat, of drab felt, had fallen off by the brookside, and been plentifully spattered as I got out.

+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--We will put the first paragraph above into single sentences.