Chapter 8

_Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom_. lady, ladies, _Pos_. lady's, ladies', _Obj_. lady; ladies.

CHILD.

_Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom._ child, children, _Pos._ child's, children's, _Obj._ child; children.

Declension of Pronouns.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

FIRST PERSON.

_Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom._ I, we, _Pos._ my _or_ mine, our _or_ ours, _Obj._ me; us.

SECOND PERSON--_common form_.

_Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom._ you, you, _Pos._ your _or_ yours, your _or_ yours, _Obj._ you; you.

SECOND PERSON--_old form_.

_Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom._ thou, ye or you, _Pos._ thy _or_ thine, your _or_ yours, _Obj._ thee; you.

THIRD PERSON--_masculine_.

_Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom._ he, they, _Pos._ his, their _or_ theirs, _Obj._ him; them.

THIRD PERSON--_feminine_.

_Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom._ she, they, _Pos._ her _or_ hers, their _or_ theirs, _Obj._ her; them.

THIRD PERSON----_neuter_.

_Singular_. _Plural_. _Nom._ it, they, _Pos._ its, their _or_ theirs, _Obj._ it; them.

_Mine, ours, yours, thine, hers_, and _theirs_ are used when the name of the thing possessed is omitted; as, This rose is _yours_ = This rose is _your rose_.

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

By joining the word _self_ to the possessive forms _my, thy, your_, and to the objective forms _him, her, it_, the +_Compound Personal Pronouns_+ are formed. They have no possessive case, and are alike in the nominative and the objective.

Their plurals are _ourselves_, _yourselves_, and _themselves_. Form the _compound personal pronouns_, and write their declension.

RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

_Sing. and Plu._ _Nom._ who, _Pos._ whose, _Obj._ whom.

_Sing. and Plu._ _Nom._ which, _Pos._ whose, _Obj._ which.

_Of which_ is often used instead of the possessive form of the latter pronoun.

_Sing. and Plu._ _Nom._ that, _Pos._ ----, _Obj._ that.

_Sing. and Plu._ _Nom._ what, _Pos._ ----, _Obj._ what.

_Ever_ and _soever_ are added to _who, which_, and _what_ to form the +_Compound Relative Pronouns_+. They are used when the antecedent is omitted. For declension, see above.

LESSON 84.

POSSESSIVE FORMS.

+RULE.--The _possessive case_ of nouns is formed in the singular by adding to the nominative the apostrophe and the letter _s_ ('s); in the plural, by adding (') only. If the plural does not end in _s_, the apostrophe and the _s_ are both added+.

Write the _possessive singular_ and the _possessive plural_ of the following nouns, and place an appropriate noun after each.

Robin, friend, fly, hero, woman, bee, mouse, cuckoo, fox, ox, man, thief, fairy, mosquito, wolf, shepherd, farmer, child, neighbor, cow.

Possession may be expressed also by the preposition _of_ and the _objective_; as, the _mosquito's_ bill = the bill _of_ the _mosquito_.

The possessive sign ('s) is confined _chiefly_ to the names of persons and animals.

We do not say the _chair's_ legs, but the legs _of_ the _chair_. Regard must be had also to the _sound_.

IMPROVE THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence.

The sky's color; the cloud's brilliancy; the rose's leaves; my uncle's partner's house; George's father's friend's farm; the mane of the horse of my brother; my brother's horse's mane.

When there are several possessive nouns, all belonging to one word, the possessive sign is added to the last only. If they modify different words, the sign is added to each.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence.

+Model+.--_Webster and Worcester's dictionary may be bought at Ticknor's and Field's book-store_.

The possessive sign should be added to _Webster_, for the word _dictionary_ is understood immediately after. Webster and Worcester do not together possess the same dictionary. The sign should not be added to _Ticknor_, for the two men, Tieknor and Field, possess the same store.

Adam's and Eve's garden; Jacob's and Esau's father; Shakespeare and Milton's works; Maud, Kate, and Clara's gloves; Maud's, Kate's, and Clara's teacher was ----.

When one possessive noun is explanatory of another, the possessive sign is added to the last only.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

I called at Tom's the tinker's. They listened to Peter's the Hermit's eloquence. This was the Apostle's Paul's advice.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

Our's, your's, hi's, their's, her's, it's, hisn, yourn, hern.

LESSON 85.

FORMS OF THE PRONOUN.

+_Remember_+ that _I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they_, and _who_ are +_nominative_+ forms, and must not be used in the objective case.

+_Remember_+ that _me, us, thee, him, her, them_, and _whom_ are +_objective_+ forms, and must not be used in the nominative case.

+To the Teacher+.--The _eight_ nominative forms and the _seven_ objective forms given above are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in the English language. Let the pupils become familiar with them.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

Him and me are good friends. The two persons were her and me. Us girls had a jolly time. It is them, surely. Who will catch this? Me. Them that despise me shall be lightly esteemed. Who is there? Me. It was not us, it was him. Who did you see? Who did you ask for?

+_Remember_+ that pronouns must agree with their antecedents in number, gender, and person.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

Every boy must read their own sentences. I gave the horse oats, but he would not eat it. Every one must read it for themselves. I took up the little boy, and set it on my knee.

+_Remember_+ that the relative _who_ represents persons; _which_, animals and things; _that_, persons, animals, and things; and _what_, things.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

I have a dog who runs to meet me. The boy which I met was quite lame. Those which live in glass houses must not throw stones.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

+To the Teacher+.--For "Schemes," see p. 186.

How many modifications have nouns and pronouns? Name and define each. How many persons are there? Define each. How many cases are there? Define each. How do you determine the case of an explanatory noun or pronoun? What is declension? How are the forms _mine, yours_, etc., now used? What is the rule for forming the possessive case? What words are used only in the nominative case? What words are used only in the objective case? [Footnote: _Her_ is used in the possessive case also.] How do you determine the number, gender, and person of pronouns?

LESSON 86.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS--PARSING.

+To the Teacher+.--For general "Scheme" for parsing, see p. 189.

Select and parse all the nouns and pronouns in Lesson 53.

+Model for Written Parsing+.--_Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I._

Elizabeth's CLASSIFICATION. _Nouns_. _Kind_. Prop. MODIFICATIONS. _Person_. 3d _Number_. Sing. _Gender_. Fem. _Case_. Pos. SYNTAX. Pos. Mod. of _favorite_.

favorite CLASSIFICATION. _Nouns_. _Kind_. Com. MODIFICATIONS. _Person_. 3d _Number_. Sing. _Gender_. Mas. _Case_. Nom. SYNTAX. Sub. of _was beheaded_.

Raleigh CLASSIFICATION. _Nouns_. _Kind_. Prop. MODIFICATIONS. _Person_. 3d _Number_. Sing. _Gender_. Mas. _Case_. Nom. SYNTAX. Exp. Mod. of _favorite_.

James I. CLASSIFICATION. _Nouns_. _Kind_. Prop. MODIFICATIONS. _Person_. 3d _Number_. Sing. _Gender_. Mas. _Case_. Obj. SYNTAX. Prin. word after _by_.

+To the Teacher+.--Select other exercises, and continue this work as long as it may be profitable. See Lessons 56, 57, 61, 64, and 65.

LESSON 87.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

+Adjectives have one modification;+ viz., _Comparison_.

DEFINITIONS.

+_Comparison_ is a modification of the adjective to express the relative degree of the quality in the things compared+.

+The _Positive degree_ expresses the simple quality+.

+The _Comparative degree_ expresses a greater or a less degree of the quality+.

+The _Superlative degree_ expresses the greatest or the least degree of the quality+.

+RULE.--Adjectives are regularly compared by adding _er_ to the positive to form the comparative, and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative+.

Adjectives of one syllable are _generally_ compared regularly; adjectives of two or more syllables are often compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_.

When there are two correct forms, choose the one that can be more easily pronounced.

Compare the following adjectives. For the spelling, consult your dictionaries.

Model.--_Positive. Comparative. Superlative_. Lovely, lovelier, loveliest; _or_ lovely, more lovely, most lovely.

Tame, warm, beautiful, brilliant, amiable, high, mad, greedy, pretty, hot.

Some adjectives are compared _irregularly_. Learn the following forms.

_Positive. Comparative. Superlative_. Good, better, best. Bad, | Evil, + worse, worst. Ill, | Little, less, least. Much, | Many, | more, most.

LESSON 88.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.

+_Remember_+ that, when two things or groups of things are compared, the _comparative_ degree is commonly used; when more than two, the _superlative_ is employed.

+_Caution_+.--Adjectives should not be _doubly_ compared.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

Of all the boys, George is the more industrious. Peter was older than the twelve apostles. Which is the longer of the rivers of America? This was the most unkindest cut of all. He chose a more humbler part. My hat is more handsomer than yours. The younger of those three boys is the smarter. Which is the more northerly, Maine, Oregon, or Minnesota?

+_Caution_+.--Do not use adjectives and adverbs extravagantly.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

The weather is horrid. That dress is perfectly awful. Your coat sits frightfully. We had an awfully good time. This is a tremendously hard lesson. Harry is a mighty nice boy.

+_Remember_+ that adjectives whose meaning does not admit of different degrees cannot be compared; as, _every_, _universal_.

Use in the three different degrees such of the following adjectives as admit of comparison.

All, serene, excellent, immortal, first, two, total, infinite, three-legged, bright.

+_Adverbs_+ are compared in the same manner as adjectives. The following are compared regularly. Compare them.

Fast, often, soon, late, early.

In the preceding and in the following list, find words that may be used as adjectives.

The following are compared irregularly. Learn them.

_Pos. Comp. Sup. _ ----------- ---------- -------- Badly, Ill, worse, worst. Well, better, best. Little, less, least. Much, more, most. Far, farther, farthest.

Adverbs ending in _ly_ are generally compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_. Compare the following.

Firmly, gracefully, actively, easily.

+To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils select and parse all the adjectives and adverbs in Lesson 27. For forms, see p. 189. Select other exercises, and continue the work as long as it is profitable. See "Schemes" for review, p. 188.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

How is a noun parsed? What modification have adjectives? What is comparison? How many degrees of comparison are there? Define each. How are adjectives regularly compared? Distinguish the uses of the comparative and the superlative degree. Give the directions for using adjectives and adverbs (Lesson 88). Illustrate. What adjectives cannot be compared? How are adverbs compared?

LESSON 89.

MODIFICATION OF VERBS.

VOICE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_I picked the rose_. I will tell the same thing in another way. _The rose was picked by me_. The first verb _picked_ shows that the subject _I_ represents the actor, and the second form of the verb, _was picked_, shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. This change in the form of the verb is called +Voice+. The first form is called the +Active Voice+; and the second, the +Passive Voice+.

The _passive_ form is very convenient when we wish to assert an action without naming any actor. _Money is coined_ is better than _somebody coins money_.

DEFINITIONS.

+_Voice_ is that modification of the transitive verb which shows whether the subject names the _actor_ or the _thing acted upon_+.

+The _Active Voice_ shows that the subject names the actor+.

+The _Passive Voice_ shows that the subject names the thing acted upon+.

In each of the following sentences, change the _voice_ of the verb without changing the meaning of the sentence. Note the other changes that occur in the sentence.

The industrious bees gather honey from the flowers. The storm drove the vessel against the rock. Our words should be carefully chosen. Death separates the dearest friends. His vices have weakened his mind and destroyed his health. True valor protects the feeble and humbles the oppressor. The Duke of Wellington, who commanded the English armies in the Peninsula, never lost a battle. Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt. Dr. Livingstone explored a large part of Africa. The English were conquered by the Normans.

Name all the transitive verbs in Lessons 20 and 22, and give, their _voice_.

LESSON 90.

MODE, TENSE, NUMBER, AND PERSON.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say, _James walks_, I assert the walking as a _fact_. When I say, _James may walk_, I do not assert the action as a fact, but as a _possible_ action. When I say, _If James walk out, he will improve_, I assert the action, not as an actual fact, but as a _condition_ of James's, improving. When I say to James, _Walk out_, I do not assert that James actually does the act, I assert the action as a _command_.

The action expressed by the verb _walk_ has been asserted in _four_ different _ways_, or +modes+. The first way is called the +Indicative Mode+; the second, the +Potential Mode+; the third, the +Subjunctive Mode+; the fourth, the +Imperative Mode+.

Let the teacher give other examples and require the pupils to repeat this instruction.

For the two forms of the verb called the +Infinitive+ and the +Participle+, see "Hints," Lessons 48 and 49.

_I walk. I walked. I shall walk_. In each of these three sentences, the manner of asserting the action is the same. _I walk_ expresses the action as _present_. _I walked_ expresses the action as _past_, and _I shall walk_ expresses the action as _future_. As +Tense+ means _time_, the first form is called the +Present Tense+; the second, the +Past Tense+; and the third, the +Future Tense+.

We have three other forms of the verb, expressing the action as _completed_ in the _present_, the _past_, or the _future_.

_I have walked out to-day. I had walked out when he called. I shall have walked out by to-morrow_. The form, _have walked_, expressing the action as _completed_ in the present, is called the +Present Perfect Tense+. The form, _had walked_, expressing the action as _completed_ in the past, is called the +Past Perfect Tense+. The form, _shall have walked_, expressing an action to be _completed_ in the future, is called the +Future Perfect Tense+.

Let the teacher give other verbs, and require the pupils to name and explain the different tenses.

_I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk_.

In the second sentence, the verb _walk_ was changed by adding _est_; and in the third, it was changed by adding _s_. These changes are for the sake of agreement with the person of the subject. The verb ending in _est_ agrees with the subject _thou_ in the second person, and the verb ending in _s_ agrees with _he_ in the third person. In the fourth sentence, the subject is in the third person; but it is plural, and so the verb drops the _s_ to agree with they in the plural.

Verbs are said to agree in +Person+ and +Number+ with their subjects. The person and number _forms_ will be found in Lessons 93, 94.

+DEFINITIONS+.

+_Mode_ is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting the action or being+.

+The _Indicative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a fact+.

+The _Potential Mode_ asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of acting or being+.

+The _Subjunctive Mode_ asserts the action or being as a mere condition, supposition, or wish+.

+The _Imperative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a command or an entreaty+.

+The _Infinitive_ is a form of the verb which names the action or being in a general way, without asserting it of anything+.

+The _Participle_ is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed+.

+The _Present Participle_ denotes action or being as continuing at the time indicated by the predicate+.

+The _Past Participle_ denotes action or being as past or completed at the time indicated by the predicate+.

+The _Past Perfect Participle_ denotes action or being as completed at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate+.

+_Tense_ is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or being+.

+The _Present Tense_ expresses action or being as present+.

+The _Past Tense_ expresses action or being as past+.

+The _Future Tense_ expresses action or being as yet to come+.

+The _Present Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at the present time+.

+The _Past Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at some past time+.

+The _Future Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being to be completed at some future time+.

+_Number_ and _Person_ of a verb are those modifications that show its agreement with the number and person of its subject+.

LESSON 91.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.

+DEFINITIONS+.

+_Conjugation_ is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb+.

+_Synopsis_ is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and person in all the modes and tenses+.

+_Auxiliary Verbs_ are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs+.

The auxiliaries are _do_, _be_, _have_, _shall_, _will_, _may_, _can_, and _must_.

+The _Principal Parts_ of a verb are the present indicative or the present infinitive, the past indicative, and the past participle+.

These are called _principal parts_, because all the other forms of the verb are derived from them.

We give, below, the _principal parts_ of some of the most important _irregular verbs_. Learn them.

_Present_. _Past_. _Past. Par._ Be _or_ am, was, been. Begin, began, begun. Blow, blew, blown. Break, broke, broken. Choose, chose, chosen. Come, came, come. Do, did, done. Draw, drew, drawn. Drink, drank, drunk. Drive, drove, driven. Eat, ate, eaten. Fall, fell, fallen. Fly, flew, flown. Freeze, froze, frozen. Go, went, gone. Get, got, got _or_ gotten. Give, gave, given. Grow, grew, grown. Have, had, had. Know, knew, known. Lay, laid, laid. Lie, (to rest) lay, lain. Ride, rode, ridden. Ring, rang _or_ rung, rung. Rise, rose, risen. Run, ran, run. See, saw, seen. Set, set, set. Sit, sat, sat. Shake, shook, shaken. Sing, sang _or_ sung, sung. Slay, slew, slain. Speak, spoke, spoken. Steal, stole, stolen. Swim, swam _or_ swum, swum. Take, took, taken. Tear, tore, torn. Throw, threw, thrown. Wear, wore, worn. Write, wrote, written.

The following irregular verbs are called +_Defective_,+ because some of their parts are wanting.

_Present_. _Past_. | _Present_. _Past_. --------------------|--------------------- Can, could. | Will, would. May, might. | Must, ---- Shall, should. | Ought, ----

LESSON 92.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB +SEE+ IN THE SIMPLE FORM.

+PRINCIPAL PARTS+.

_Pres_. _Past_. _Past Par._ See, saw, seen.

INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE.

_Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I see, 1. We see, 2. You see, _or_ 2. You see, Thou seest, 3. He sees; 3. They see.

PAST TENSE.

1. I saw, 1. We saw, 2. You saw, _or_ 2. You saw, Thou sawest, 3. He saw; 3. They saw.

FUTURE TENSE.

1. I shall see, 1. We shall see, 2. You will see, _or_ 2. You will see, Thou wilt see, 3. He will see; 3. They will see.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. I have seen, 1. We have seen, 2. You have seen, _or_ 2. You have seen, Thou hast seen 3. He has seen; 3. They have seen.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. I had seen, 1. We had seen, 2. You had seen, _or_ 2. You had seen, Thou hadst seen, 3. He had seen; 3. They had seen.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen, 2. You will have seen, _or_ 2. You will have seen, Thou wilt have seen, 3. He will have seen; 3. They will have seen.

POTENTIAL MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

_Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I may see, 1. We may see, 2. You may see, _or_ 2. You may see, Thou mayst see, 3. He may see; 3. They may see.

PAST TENSE.

1. I might see, 1. We might see, 2. You might see, _or_ Thou mightst see, 2. You might see, 3. He might see; 3. They might see.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. I may have seen, 1. We may have seen, 2. You may have seen, _or_ 2. You may have seen Thou mayst have seen, 3. He may have seen; 3. They may have seen.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

_Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen, 2. You might have seen, _or_ 2. You might have seen, Thou mightst have seen, 3. He might have seen; 3. They might have seen.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

_Singular_. _Plural_. 1. If I see, 1. If we see, 2. If you see, _or_ 2. If you see, If thou see, 3. If he see; 3. If they see.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

2. See (you _or_ thou); 2. See (you).

INFINITIVES.

PRESENT TENSE.

To see.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

To have seen.

PARTICIPLES.

PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT.

Seeing, Seen, Having seen.

+To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils prefix _do_ and _did_ to the simple present _see_, and thus make the _emphatic form_ of the present and the past tense.

Let _can_ and _must_ be used in place of _may_; and _could_, _would_, and _should_, in place of _might_.