Chapter 6

+Model+.--_Saturn's rings_; the rings _of Saturn_; the rings _which surround Saturn_.

_Saturn's_ rings can be seen with a telescope. The _rings of Saturn_ can be seen with a telescope. The rings _which surround Saturn_ can be seen, with a telescope.

Absalom's hair; the hen's eggs; the elephant's tusks.

Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the participial phrases into clauses.

The vessels carrying the blood from the heart are called arteries. The book prized above all other books is the Bible. Rivers rising west of the Rocky Mts. flow into the Pacific ocean. The guns fired at Concord were heard around the world.

+To the Teacher+.--For additional composition exercises with particular reference to adjective clauses, see Notes, p. 177.

LESSON 59.

COMPLEX SENTENCES.

THE ADVERB CLAUSE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You learned in Lesson 83 that an adverb can be expanded into an equivalent phrase; as, The book was _carefully_ read = The book was read _with care_.

We shall now learn that a phrase used as an adverb may be expanded into an +Adverb clause+. In the sentence, _We started at sunrise_, what phrase is used like an adverb? +P+.--_At sunrise_. +T+.--Expand this phrase into an equivalent clause, and give me the entire sentence. +P+.--We started _when the sun rose_.

+T+.--You see that the phrase, _at sunrise_, and the clause, _when the sun rose_, both modify _started_, telling the time of starting, and are therefore equivalent to adverbs. We will then call such clauses +Adverb Clauses+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model.--+

We | started =========|============= \ ` when sun \ rose =======|========= \the

+Explanation of the Diagram+.--The line which connects the two predicate lines pictures three things. It is made up of three parts. The upper part shows that _when_ modifies _started_; the lower part, that it modifies _rose_; and the dotted part shows that it _connects_.

+Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence, because ----; _We started_ is the independent clause, and _when the sun rose_ is the dependent clause. _We_ is the subject of the independent clause, and _started_ is the predicate. The clause, _when the sun rose_, is a modifier of the predicate, because it tells when we started. _Started when the sun rose_ is the modified predicate.

_Sun_ is the subject of the dependent clause, and _rose_ is the predicate, and the is a modifier of _sun_; _the sun_ is the modified subject. _When_ modifies _rose_ and _started_, and connects the clause-modifier to the predicate _started_.

+Parsing+ of _when_.--_When_ is an adverb modifying the two verbs _started_ and _rose_, thus connecting the two clauses. It modifies these verbs by showing that the two actions took place at the same time.

1. The dew glitters when the sun shines. 2. Printing was unknown when Homer wrote the Iliad. 3. Where the bee sucks honey, the spider sucks poison. 4. Ah! few shall part where many meet. 5. Where the devil cannot come, he will send. 6. While the bridegroom tarried, they all slumbered and slept. 7. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 8. When the tale of bricks is doubled, Moses comes. 9. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy dies within me. 10. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 11. He died as the fool dieth. 12. The scepter shall not depart from Judah until Shiloh come.

LESSON 60.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

ADVERB CLAUSES.

Expand each of the following phrases into an adverb clause, and fit this clause into a sentence of your own building.

+Model+.--_At sunset; when the sun set_. We returned _when the sun set_.

At the hour; on the playground; by moonlight; in youth; among icebergs; after school; at the forks of the road; during the day; before church; with my friend.

To each of the following independent clauses, join an adverb clause, and so make complex sentences.

---- Peter began to sink. The man dies ----. Grass grows ----. Iron ---- can easily be shaped. The rattlesnake shakes his rattle ----. ---- a nation mourns. Pittsburg stands ----. He dared to lead ----.

+To the Teacher+.--For additional composition exercises with particular reference to adverb clauses, see Notes, p. 177.

See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection from the Brothers Grimm.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

In what two ways may nouns be used as modifiers? Illustrate. Nouns and pronouns denoting possession may sometimes be changed into what? Illustrate. Give the rule for the punctuation of explanatory modifiers. Into what may an adjective be expanded? Into what may a participial phrase be expanded? Give illustrations. Give an example of a complex sentence. Of a clause. Of an independent clause. Of a dependent clause. Into what may a phrase used as an adverb be expanded? Illustrate.

LESSON 61.

THE NOUN CLAUSE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_That stars are suns is taught by astronomers_. What is taught by astronomers? +P+.--That stars are suns. +T+.--What then is the subject of _is taught_? +P+.--The clause, _That stars are suns_. +T+.--This clause then performs the office of what part of speech? +P+.--Of a noun.

+T+.--_Astronomers teach that stars are suns_. What do astronomers teach? +P+.--That stars are suns. +T+.--What is the object complement of _teach_? +P+.--The clause, _that stars are suns_. +T+.--What office then does this clause perform? +P+.--That of a noun.

+T+.--_The teaching of astronomers is, that stars are suns_. What does _is_ assert of teaching? +P+.--That stars are suns. +T+.--What then is the attribute complement? +P+.--_That stars are suns_. +T+.--Does this complement express the quality of the subject, or does it name the same thing that the subject names? +P+.--It names the same thing that the subject names. +T+.--It is equivalent then to what part of speech? +P+.--To a noun.

+T+.--You see then that a clause, like a noun, may be used as the subject or the complement of a sentence.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model+.--

That ------ ' stars | are '\suns =======|============ | | | / \ | is taught ================|============ | \by \ astronomers --------------

You will understand this diagram from the explanation of the second diagram in Lesson 49.

+Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence, in which the whole sentence takes the place of the independent clause. _That stars are suns_ is the dependent clause. _That stars are suns_ is the subject of the whole sentence, etc. ----. _That_ simply introduces the dependent clause.

In _parsing_, call _that_ a conjunction.

1. That the Scotch are an intelligent people is generally acknowledged. 2. That the moon is made of green cheese is believed by some boys and girls. 3. That Julius Caesar invaded Britain is a historic fact. 4. That children should obey their parents is a divine precept. 5. I know that my Redeemer liveth. 6. Plato taught that the soul is immortal. 7. Peter denied that he knew his Lord. 8. Mahomet found that the mountain would not move. 9. The principle maintained by the colonies was, that taxation without representation is unjust. 10. Our intention is, that this work shall be well done. 11. Our hearts' desire and prayer is, that you may be saved. 12. The belief of the Sadducees was, that there is no resurrection of the dead.

* * * * *

LESSON 62.

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

+DEFINITION.--A _Compound Sentence_ is one composed of two or more independent clauses+.

+Model+.--_War has ceased, and peace has come_.

War | has ceased =======|============= | ' ' and '..... ' peace | has ' come =========|=============== |

+Explanation of the Diagram+.--These two clause diagrams are shaded alike to show that the two clauses are of the same rank. The connecting line is not slanting, for one clause is not a modifier of the other. As one entire clause is connected with the other, the connecting line is drawn between the predicates simply for convenience.

+Oral Analysis+.--This is a _compound sentence_, because it is made up of two independent clauses. The first clause, etc. ----.

1. Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. 2. Prayer leads the heart to God, and he always listens. 3. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir up anger. 4. Power works easily, but fretting is a perpetual confession of weakness. 5. Many meet the gods, but few salute them. 6. We eat to live, but we do not live to eat. 7. The satellites revolve in orbits around the planets, and the planets move in orbits around the sun. 8. A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. 9. Every man desires to live long, but no man would be old. 10. [Footnote: A verb is to be supplied in each of the last three sentences.] Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall. 11. Towers are measured by their shadows, and great men, by their calumniators. 12. Worth makes the man, and want of it, the fellow.

LESSON 63.

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO THEIR MEANING.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You have already become acquainted with three kinds of sentences. Can you name them?

+P+.--The Simple sentence, the Complex, and the Compound.

+T+.--These classes have been made with regard to the _form_ of the sentence. We will now arrange sentences in classes with regard to their _meaning_.

_Mary sings. Does Mary sing? Sing, Mary. How Mary sings!_ Here are four simple sentences. Do they all _mean_ the same thing?

+P+.--They do not.

+T+.--Well, you see they differ. Let me tell you wherein. The first one tells a fact, the second asks a question, the third expresses a command, and the fourth expresses sudden thought or strong feeling. We call the first a +Declarative sentence+, the second an +Interrogative sentence+, the third an +Imperative sentence+, and the fourth an +Exclamatory sentence+.

+DEFINITION.--A _Declarative Sentence_ is one that is used to affirm or to deny+.

+DEFINITION.--An _Interrogative Sentence_ is one that expresses a question+.

+DEFINITION.--An _Imperative Sentence_ is one that expresses a command or an entreaty+.

+DEFINITION.--An _Exclamatory Sentence_ is one that expresses sudden thought or strong feeling+.

+INTERROGATION POINT--RULE.--Every direct interrogative sentence should be followed by an interrogation point+. [Footnote: To The Teacher.--See Notes, pp. 178, 179.]

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Change each of the following declarative sentences into three interrogative sentences, and tell how the change was made.

+Model+.--_Girls can skate. Can girls skate? How can girls skate? What girls can skate?_ You are happy. Parrots can talk. Low houses were built.

Change each of the following into an imperative sentence. Notice that independent words are set off by the comma.

+Model+.--_Carlo eats his dinner. Eat your dinner, Carlo_. George plays the flute. Birdie stands on one leg.

Change each of the following into exclamatory sentences.

+Model+.--_You are happy. How happy you are! What a happy child you are! You are so happy!_

Time flies swiftly. I am glad to see you. A refreshing shower fell. Lapland is a cold country. It is hot between the tropics.

Write a declarative, an interrogative, an imperative, and an exclamatory sentence on each of the following topics.

Weather, lightning, a stage coach.

LESSON 64.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.

In the analysis, classify these sentences first with reference to their _form_, and then with reference to their _meaning_.

1. Wickedness is often made a substitute for wit. 2. Alfred was a brave, pious, and patriotic prince. 3. The throne of Philip trembles while Demosthenes speaks. 4. That the whole is equal to the sum of its parts is an axiom. 5. The lion belongs to the cat tribe, but he cannot climb a tree. 6. Pride is a flower that grows in the devil's garden. 7. Of all forms of habitation, the simplest is the burrow. 8. When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice. 9. When the wicked beareth rule, the people mourn. 10. Cassius, be not deceived. [Footnote: _Cassius_ is independent, and may be diagramed like an interjection. The subject of _be deceived_ is _thou_, or _you_, understood.] 11. How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, how wonderful is man! 12. Which is the largest city in the world?

LESSON 65.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW--CONTINUED,

1. Politeness is the oil which lubricates the wheels of society. 2. 0 liberty! liberty! how many crimes are committed in thy name! 3. The mind is a goodly field, and to sow it with trifles is the worst husbandry in the world. 4. Every day in thy life is a leaf in thy history. 5. Make hay while the sun shines. 6. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a new continent. 7. The subject of inquiry was, Who invented printing? 8. The cat's tongue is covered with thousands of little sharp cones, pointing towards the throat. 9. The fly sat upon the axle of a chariot-wheel and said, "What a dust do I raise!" 10. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, attempting to recross the Atlantic in his little vessel, the Squirrel, went down in mid-ocean. 11. Charity begins at home, but it should not stay there. 12. The morn, in russet mantle clad, walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill.

LESSON 66.

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS IN REVIEW.

I haven't near so much. I only want one. Draw the string tightly. He writes good. I will prosecute him who sticks bills upon this church or any other nuisance. Noah for his godliness and his family were saved from the flood. We were at Europe this summer. You may rely in that. She lives to home. I can't do no work. He will never be no better. They seemed to be nearly dressed alike. I won't never do so no more. A ivory ball. An hundred head of cattle. george washington, gen dix of n y. o sarah i Saw A pretty Bonnet. are You going home? A young man wrote these verses who has long lain in his grave for his own amusement. This house will be kept by the widow of Mr. B. who died recently on an improved plan. _In correcting the position of the adjective clauses in the two examples above, observe the caution for the phrase modifiers, Lesson_ 41. He was an independent small farmer. The mind knows feels and thinks. The urchin was ragged barefooted dirty homeless and friendless. I am some tired. This here road is rough. That there man is homely. pshaw i am so Disgusted. Whoa can't you stand still. James the gardener gave me a white lily. Irving the genial writer lived on the hudson.

LESSON 67.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build one sentence out of each group of the sentences which follow.

+Model+.--An _able_ man was chosen. A _prudent_ man was chosen. An _honorable_ man was chosen. An _able, prudent_, and _honorable_ man was chosen.

Pure water is destitute of color. Pure water is destitute of taste. Pure water is destitute of smell.

Cicero was the greatest orator of his age. Demosthenes was the greatest orator of his age.

Daisies peeped up here. Daisies peeped up there. Daisies peeped up everywhere.

Expand each of the following sentences into three.

The English language is spoken in England, Canada, and the United States. The Missouri, Ohio, and Arkansas rivers are branches of the Mississippi.

Out of the four following sentences, build one sentence having three explanatory modifiers.

+Model+.--Elizabeth was _the daughter of Henry VIII_. Elizabeth was _sister of Queen Mary_. Elizabeth was _the patron of literature_. Elizabeth defeated the Armada. Elizabeth, _the daughter of Henry VIII., sister of Queen Mary, and the patron of literature_, defeated the Armada.

Boston is the capital of Massachusetts. Boston is the Athens of America. Boston is the "Hub of the Universe." Boston has crooked streets.

Expand the following sentence into four sentences.

Daniel Webster, the great jurist, the expounder of the Constitution, and the chief of the "American Triumvirate," died with the words, "I still live," on his lips.

LESSON 68.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

+To the Teacher+.--For additional exercises in composition, see Notes, pp. 176-180.

Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the phrases into adjective clauses.

+Model+.--People _living in glass houses_ shouldn't throw stones. People _who live in glass houses_ shouldn't throw stones.

Those living in the Arctic regions need much oily food. A house built upon the rock will stand. The boy of studious habits will always have his lesson. Wellington was a man of iron will.

Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting the adjective clauses into phrases.

Much of the cotton which is raised in the Gulf States is exported. The house which was built upon the sand fell. A thing which is beautiful is a joy forever. Aaron Burr was a man who had fascinating manners.

Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the phrases into adverb clauses.

+Model+.--Birds return _in the spring_. _When spring comes_, the birds return.

The dog came at call. In old age our senses fail.

Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting the adverb clauses into phrases.

The ship started when the tide was at flood. When he reached the middle of his speech, he stopped.

By supplying noun clauses, make complete sentences out of the following expressions.

---- is a well-known fact. The fact was ----. Ben. Franklin said ----.

LESSON 69.

GENERAL REVIEW.

What is a letter? Give the name and the sound of each of the letters in the three following words: _letters, name, sound_. Into what classes are letters divided? Define each class. Name the vowels. What is a word? What is artificial language? What is English Grammar? What is a sentence? What is the difference between the two expressions, _ripe apples_ and _apples are ripe_? What two parts must every sentence have? Define each. What is the analysis of a sentence? What is a diagram? What are parts of speech? How many parts of speech are there? Give an example of each. What is a noun? What is a verb? What must every predicate contain? What is a pronoun? What is a modifier? What is an adjective? What adjectives are sometimes called articles? When is _a_ used? When is _an_ used? Illustrate. Give an example of one modifier joined to another. What is an adverb? What is a phrase? What is a preposition? What is a conjunction? What is an interjection? Give four rules for the use of capital letters (Lessons 8, 15, 19, 87). Give two rules for the use of the period, one for the exclamation point, and one for the interrogation point (Lessons 8, 37, 63).

LESSON 70.

GENERAL REVIEW.

What is an object complement? What is an attribute complement? How does a participle differ from a predicate verb? Illustrate. What offices does an infinitive phrase perform? Illustrate. How are sentences classified with respect to form? Give an example of each class. What is a simple sentence? What is a clause? What is a dependent clause? What is an independent clause? What is a complex sentence? What is a compound sentence? How are sentences classified with respect to meaning? Give an example of each class. What is a declarative sentence? What is an interrogative sentence? What is an imperative sentence? What is an exclamatory sentence? What different offices may a noun perform? Ans.--_A noun may be used as a subject, as an object complement, as an attribute complement, as a possessive modifier, as an explanatory modifier, as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, and it may be used independently_. Illustrate each use. What are sometimes substituted for nouns? _Ans.--Pronouns, phrases, and clauses_. Illustrate. What is the principal office of a verb? What offices may be performed by a phrase? What, by a clause? What, different offices may an adjective perform? What parts of speech may connect clauses? _Ans.--Conjunctions, adverbs, and pronouns_. (See Lessons 62, 59, and 57.) Give rules for the use of the comma (Lessons 37, 54, 57). Give and illustrate the directions for using adjectives and adverbs, for placing phrases, for using prepositions, and for using negatives (Lessons 40, 41).

+To the Teacher+.--For additional review, see "Scheme," p. 185.

If the early presentation of an outline of technical grammar is not compelled by a prescribed course of study, we should here introduce a series of lessons in the construction of sentences, paragraphs, letters, and general compositions. The pages following Lesson 100 will furnish matter.

See especially COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection from Beecher.

PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED.

LESSON 71.

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--Hereafter, in the "Hints," we shall drop the dialogue form, but we expect the teacher to continue it. A poor teacher does all the talking, a good teacher makes the pupils talk.

The teacher may here refer to his talk about the classification of birds, and show that, after birds have been arranged in great classes, such as robins, sparrows, etc., these classes will need to be subdivided, if the pupil is to be made thoroughly acquainted with this department of the animal kingdom. So, after grouping _words_ into the eight great classes, called Parts of Speech, these classes may be divided into other classes. For instance, take the two nouns _city_ and _Brooklyn_. The word _city_ is the _common_ name of all places of a certain class, but the word _Brooklyn_ is the _proper_ or particular name of an _individual_ of this class. We have here, then, two kinds of nouns which we call +Common+ and +Proper+.

Let the teacher write a number of nouns on the board, and require the pupil to classify them and give the reasons for the classification.

To prepare the pupil thoroughly for this work, the teacher will find it necessary to explain why such words as _music, mathematics, knowledge_, etc., are common nouns. _Music, e. g._, is not a proper noun, for it is not a name given to an individual thing to distinguish it from other things of the same class. There are no other things of the same class--it forms a class by itself. So we call the noun _music_ a _common_ noun.

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS.

The speaker seldom refers to himself by name, but uses the pronoun _I_ instead. In speaking _to_ a person, we often use the pronoun _you_ instead of his name. In speaking _of_ a person or thing that has been mentioned before, we say _he_ or _she_ or _it_. These words that by their _form_ indicate the speaker, the hearer, or the person or thing spoken of, are called +Personal Pronouns+. See Lesson 19, "Hints."

Give sentences containing nouns repeated, and require the pupils to improve these sentences by substituting pronouns.

When we wish to refer to an object that has been mentioned in _another_ clause, and at the same time to _connect the clauses_, we use a class of pronouns called +Relative Pronouns+. Let the teacher illustrate by using the pronouns _who, which_, and _that_. See Lesson 57, "Hints for Oral Instruction."

When we wish to ask about anything whose _name is unknown_, we use a class of pronouns called +Interrogative Pronouns+. The interrogative pronoun stands for the unknown name, and asks for it; as, _Who_ comes here? _What_ is this?