Chapter 12

We suggest that, from two or more paragraphs of some interesting and instructive article, leading sentences be selected, and that the pupils be required to explain the office and the punctuation of the easier adjective and adverb phrases, to vary the arrangement in every possible way, and to discuss the effects of these changes. Then, after finding the general subject and the heading for each paragraph, the pupils may arrange these sentences and work them into a composition, making such additions as may be suggested.

RESTRICTIVE MODIFIERS--PUNCTUATION.

The chief difficulty in the punctuation of the different kinds of modifiers is in determining whether or not they are restrictive. The following examples may serve as the basis of an observation lesson:--

(_a_) The words _golden_ and _oriole_ are pleasant to the ear. (_b_) Words, the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. (_c_) Use words that are current. (_d_) Words, which are the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. (_e_) The country anciently called Gaul is now called France. (_f_) France, anciently called Gaul, derived its name from the Franks. (_g_) Glass bends easily when it is hot. (_h_) I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad.

The following explanations may be drawn from the pupils:--

In (_a_) the application of _words_ is limited, or restricted, to the two words mentioned; in (_c_) _words_ is restricted to a certain kind. In (_b_) and (_d_) the modifiers do not restrict. They apply to all words and simply add information. In (_e_) the participial phrase restricts the application of _country_ to one particular country; but in (_f_) the phrase describes without limiting. The omission of the comma in (_g_) shows that _Glass bends easily_ is not offered as a general statement, but that the action is restricted to a certain time or condition. _When it is hot_ is essential to the intended meaning. The punctuation of (_h_) shows that the speaker does not wish to make the time of meeting a prominent or essential part of what he has to say. The adverb clause simply gives additional information. If (_h_) were an answer to the question, When did you meet him? the comma would be omitted. The sense may be varied by the use or the omission of the comma.

Let the pupils see how incomplete the statements are when the restrictive modifiers are omitted, and that the other modifiers are not so necessary to the sense. In such expressions as _I myself, we boys_, the explanatory words are not restrictive, but they combine closely with the modified term.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.

Adjective clauses allow little change in position. They usually follow closely the word modified. Often they may be contracted into adjectives or into adjective phrases.

Selections from standard writers may be made with special reference to the study of adjective clauses. The position, punctuation, and choice of relatives may be noticed, and, as far as possible, the clauses may be changed into equivalent adjectives or into phrases.

ADVERB CLAUSES.

An adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between its parts, or after it; as, "When it is hot, glass bends easily;" "Glass, when it is hot, bends easily;" "Glass bends easily when it is hot." Notice the punctuation of these examples.

Adverb clauses may be contracted in various ways. Clauses introduced by the comparatives _as_ and _than_ are usually found in an abbreviated form; as, "You are as old _as_ he (_is old_);" "You are older _than_ I (_am old_)." Attention may be called to the danger of mistaking here the nominative for the objective. We suggest making selections for the study of adverb clauses.

NOUN CLAUSES.

Noun clauses may be contracted; as, "_That we should obey_ is necessary" = "_Obedience_ is necessary," or, "_To obey_ is necessary;" "I can hardly realize _that my friend is gone_" = "I can hardly realize _my friend's being gone_." By substituting _it_ for the subject clause, this clause maybe placed last and made explanatory; as, "_It_ is necessary _that we should obey_." The object clause is sometimes transposed; as, "_That my friend is gone_, I can hardly realize." The noun clause may be made prominent by introducing the independent clause parenthetically; as,"_His story_, we believe, _is exaggerated_."

Notice the punctuation of the clauses above. The noun clause used as attribute complement is generally set off by the comma. Noun clauses that are quotations need special treatment.

NOUN CLAUSES--QUOTATIONS.

We suggest the following observation lesson:--

1. Goldsmith says, "Learn the luxury of doing good." 2. Goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of doing good. 3. "The owlet Atheism, hooting at the glorious sun in heaven, cries out, 'Where is it?'" 4. Coleridge compares atheism to an owlet hooting at the sun, and asking where it is. 5. "To read without reflecting," says Burke, "is like eating without digesting." 6. May we not find "sermons in stones and good in everything"? 7. There is much meaning in the following quotation: "Books are embalmed minds." 8. We must ask, What are we living for? 9. We must ask what we are living for.

+Observation Lesson+.--Notice that the writer of (1) has copied into his sentence (quoted) the exact language of Goldsmith. The two marks like inverted commas and the two marks like apostrophes, which inclose this copied passage (quotation), are called _Quotation Marks_.

Name all the differences between (1) and (2). Is the same thought expressed in both? Which quotation would you call _direct?_ Which, _indirect?_

Notice that the whole of (3) is a quotation, and that this quotation contains another quotation inclosed within _single marks_. Notice the order of the marks at the end of (3).

Point out the differences between (3) and (4). In which is a question quoted just as it would be asked? In which is a question merely referred to? Which question would you call _direct?_ Which, _indirect_? Name every difference in the form of these.

In which of the above sentences is a quotation interrupted by a parenthetical clause? How are the parts marked?

Point out a quotation that cannot make complete sense by itself. How does it differ from the others as to punctuation and the first letter?

In (7) a _Colon_ precedes the quotation to show that it is _formally introduced_.

In (8) a question is introduced without quotation marks. Questions that, like this, are introduced without being referred to any particular person or persons, are often written without quotation marks. State the differences between (8) and (9).

In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the quotation marks; but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is reversed. Point out illustrations above.

Sum up what you have learned. (See rules for capitals, comma, colon, and quotation marks, pp. 140-143.)

Selections written in the colloquial style and containing frequent quotations and questions may be taken from reading-books, for examination, discussion, and copying. Noun phrases may be expanded, and noun clauses contracted, transposed, etc.

INDEPENDENT CLAUSES.

Frequently independent clauses are contracted by using repeated parts but once and uniting the other parts into a compound term, as in Lesson 67. They are also contracted by omitting such words as may be readily understood; as, "Is it true, or _not;_" "He is a philosopher, _not a poet_." For punctuation, see rules for the comma and the semicolon, p. 141.

REVIEW--COMPOSITION.

We recommend that the teacher select some short article containing valuable information and break up each paragraph into short, disconnected expressions. One paragraph at a time may be put on the board for the pupils to copy. The general subject may be given, and the pupils may be required to find a proper heading for the paragraph. The different ways of connecting the expressions may be discussed in the class. By contracting, expanding, transposing, and by substituting entirely different words, a great variety of forms may be had. (The forms found in the "Example," p. 144, and the list of connectives, p. 190, may be helpful.) The pupils may then combine the different paragraphs into a composition. For the explanation of _paragraph_, see p. 145, and Exercises for Composition in the Supplement.

We give below material for one composition:--

Frog's spawn found in a pond. At first like a mass of jelly. Eggs can be distinguished.

In a few days curious little fish are hatched. These "tadpoles" are lively. Swim by means of long tails. Head very large--out of proportion. Appearance of all head and tail. This creature is a true fish. It breathes water-air by means of gills. It has a two-chambered heart.

Watch it day by day. Two little gills seen. These soon disappear. Hind legs begin to grow. Tail gets smaller. Two small arms, or forelegs, are seen. Remarkable change going on inside. True lungs for breathing air have been forming. Another chamber added to the heart.

As the gills grow smaller, it finds difficulty in breathing water-air. One fine day it pokes its nose out of the water. Astonished (possibly) to find that it can breathe in the air. A new life has come upon it. No particular reason for spending all its time in water; crawls out upon land; sits down upon its haunches; surveys the world. It is no longer a fish; has entered upon a higher stage of existence; has become a frog.

This work of analyzing a composition to find the leading thoughts under which the other thoughts may be grouped is in many ways a most valuable discipline.

It teaches the pupil to compare, to discriminate, to weigh, to systematize, to read intelligently and profitably.

The reading-book will afford excellent practice in finding heads for paragraphs. Such work is an essential preparation for the reading-class.

This composition work should serve as a constant review of all that has been passed over in the text-book.

ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS AND ADVERBS.

It is often difficult to distinguish an adjective complement from an adverb modifier. We offer the following explanation:--

"Mary arrived _safe_." As we here wish to tell the condition of Mary on her arrival, and _not_ the _manner_ of her arriving, we use _safe_, not _safely_. "My head feels _bad_" (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the sense of feeling). "The sun shines _bright_" (is bright--quality,--as perceived by its shining).

You must determine whether you wish to tell the _quality_ of the thing named or the _manner_ of the action.

When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above, you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows.

Let the pupils show that the following adjectives and adverbs are used correctly:--

1. I feel sad. 2. I feel deeply. 3. I feel miserable. 4. He appeared prompt and willing. 5. He appeared promptly and willingly. 6. She looks beautiful. 7. She sings beautifully.

PAST PARTICIPLES AND PREDICATE VERBS DISTINGUISHED.

When the past tense and the past participle differ in form, they are often confounded in use; as,

I _done_ it; I _seen_ it.

Pupils may be required to construct short sentences, oral or written, using the _Past_ forms found in Lesson 91 as predicates, and the _Past Participle_ forms either as modifiers or as completing words in compound verbs.

They may be led to some such conclusion as the following:--

The _Past_ is always an asserting, or predicate, word; the _Past Participle_ never asserts, but is used as an adjective modifier or as the completing word of a compound verb; the _Present_ may be used as a predicate or as an infinitive.

Exercises like the following may be copied, and repeated aloud:--

1. _Lay_ down your pen. 2. _Lie_ down, Rover. 3. I _laid_ down my pen. 4. The dog then _lay_ down. 5. I have _laid_ down my pen. 6. The dog has _lain_ down. 7. _Set_ the pail down. 8. _Sit_ down and rest. 9. I then _set_ it down. 10. I _sat_ down and rested. 11. I have _set_ it down. 12. I have _sat_ down. 13. My work was _laid_ aside. 14. I was _lying_ down. 15. The trap was _set_ by the river. 16. I was _sitting_ by the river. 17. The garment _sits_ well. 18. The hen _sits_ on her eggs. 19. He came in and _lay_ down. 20. The Mediterranean _lies_ between Europe and Africa.

Notice that we may speak of _laying_ something or _setting_ something, or may say that something is _laid_ or is _set_; but we cannot speak of _lying_ or _sitting_ something, or of something being _lain_ or _sat_. _Set_, in some of its meanings, is used without an object; as, "The sun _set_;" "He _set_ out on a journey."

_Lay_, the present of the first verb, and _lay_, the past of _lie_, may easily be distinguished by the difference in meaning and in the time expressed.

POSSESSIVE FORMS.

Pupils may be required to copy such forms as the following:--

The sailor's story; the farmer's son; the pony's mane; the monkey's tail; a day's work; James's book; a cent's worth; a man's wages; the child's toys; the woman's hat; the sailors' stories; the farmers' sons; the ponies' manes; the monkeys' tails; three days' work; five cents' worth; two men's wages; those children's toys; women's hats.

This may be continued till the pupils are able to form some such statement as the following:--

(_'s_) and (_'_) are the possessive signs, (_'_) being used when _s_ has been added to denote more than one, (_'s_) in other cases.

Such expressions as the following may be copied:--

Dombey and Son's business; J. J. Little & Co.'s printing-house; William the Conqueror's reign; Houghton, Mifflin, and Company's publications.

This may be continued till the pupils learn that, when a group of words may be treated as a compound name, the possessive sign is added to the last word only.

THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT.

The treatment of the objective complement may be introduced in a review course, when the class is sufficiently mature. The following explanation may aid some teachers:--

In "It made him _sad_," _made_ does not fully express the action performed upon him--not "_made_ him," but "_made sad_ (saddened) him." _Sad_ helps _made_ to express the action, and also denotes a quality which as the result of the action belongs to the person represented by the object _him_.

Whatever completes the predicate and belongs to the object we call an _Objective Complement_.

Nouns, infinitives, and participles may also be used in the same way; as,

"They made Victoria _queen_," "It made him _weep_;" "It kept him _laughing_."

They | made / queen | Victoria ======|========================= |

+Explanation+.--The line that separates _made_ from _queen_ slants toward the object complement to show that _queen_ belongs to the object.

A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in the objective case.

The teacher may here explain such constructions as, "I proved it to be _him_," in which _it_ is object complement and _to be him_ is objective complement. _Him_, the attribute complement of _be_, is in the objective case because _it_, the assumed subject of _be_, is objective. Let the pupils compare "I proved it to be _him_" with "I proved that it was _he;_" "_Whom_ did you suppose it to be?" with "_Who_ did you suppose it was?" etc.

NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS.

The following uses of nouns and pronouns, not found in the preceding Lessons, may be introduced in a review course.

1. He gave _John_ a book. 2. He bought _me_ a book.

_John_ and _me_, as here used, are generally called _Indirect Objects_. The "indirect object" names the one _to_ or _for_ whom something is done. We treat these words as phrase modifiers without the preposition. If we change the order, the preposition must be supplied; as, "He gave a book _to John;_" "He bought a book _for me_."

Nouns denoting _measure, quantity, weight, time, value, distance_, or _direction_ may be used adverbially, being equivalent to phrase modifiers without the preposition; as,

1. We walked four _miles_ an _hour_. 2. It weighs one _pound_. 3. It is worth a _dollar_. 4. The wall is ten _feet_, six _inches_ high. 5. I went _home_ that way.

The following diagram will illustrate both the "indirect object" and the "noun of measure:"--

They offered Caesar the crown three times.

They | offered | crown =======|==================== | \ \ \the \ \ times \ \------ \ \three \ Caesar \------

+Explanation+.--_Caesar_ (the "indirect object") and _times_ (denoting measure) stand in the diagram on lines representing the principal words of prepositional phrases.

SCHEMES FOR REVIEW.

These schemes will be found very helpful in a general review. The pupils should be able to reproduce them, omitting the Lesson numbers.

Scheme for the Sentence.

(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)

PARTS.

+Subject+. Noun or Pronoun (6, 14, 19). Phrase (49). Clause (61).

+Predicate+. Verb (6,16).

+Complements+. Object. Noun or Pronoun (39). Phrase (49). Clause (61). Attribute. Adjective (39). Noun or Pronoun (42). Phrase. Clause (61).

+Modifiers+. Adjectives (20, 22). Adverbs (24, 27). Participles (48). Nouns and Pronouns (53). Phrases (31, 48, 49). Clauses (57, 59).

+Connectives+. Conjunctions (35, 36, 62). Pronouns (57). Adverbs (59).

+Independent Parts (36, 64)+.

+Classes+--+Meaning+.--Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, Exclamatory (63).

+Classes+--+Form+.--Simple, Complex, Compound (57, 62).

Scheme for the Noun.

(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)

NOUN (14).

+Uses+. Subject (6). Object Complement (39). Attribute Complement (42). Adjective Modifier (53). Prin. word in Prep. Phrase (34). Independent (64).

+Classes+. Common (71). Proper (71).

+Modifications+. Number Singular (78, 79). Plural (78, 79).

+Gender+. Masculine (80). Feminine (80). Neuter (80).

+Person+. First (81-83). Second (81-83). Third (81-83).

+Case+. Nominative (81-85). Possessive (81-85). Objective (81-85).

Scheme for the Pronoun.

PRONOUNS.

+Uses+.--Same as those of the Noun.

+Classes+. Personal (71, 72). Relative (71, 72). Interrogative (71, 72). Adjective (71, 72).

+Modifications+.--Same as those of the Noun (78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 95).

Scheme for the Verb.

(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)

VERB. +Uses+ To _assert_ action, being, or state.--Predicate (6, 16). To _assume_ action, being, or state. Participles (48). Infinitives (49).

+Classes+. Form. Regular (74). Irregular (74, 91). Meaning. Transitive (74), Intransitive (74).

+Modifications+. Voice. Active (89). Passive (89). Mode. Indicative (90-94). Potential (90-94). Subjunctive (90-94). Imperative (90-94). Tense. Present (90-94). Past (90-94). Future (90-94). Present Perfect (90-94). Past Perfect (90-94). Future Perfect (90-94). Number. Singular (90, 92-95). Plural (90, 92-95). Person. First (90, 92-95). Second (90, 92-95). Third (90, 92-95).

+Participles+.-- Classes. Present (90-94, 96, 98). Past (90-94, 96, 98). Past Perfect (90-94, 96, 98).

+Infinitives+.-- Tenses. Present (90, 92-94). Present Perfect (90, 92-94).

Scheme for the Adjective.

(_The numbers refer to Lessons.)_

ADJECTIVE.

+Uses+. Modifier (20, 23). Attribute Complement (39).

+Classes+. Descriptive (73). Definitive (73).

+Modification+.--Comparison. Pos. Deg. (87, 88). Comp. Deg. (87, 88). Sup. Deg. (87, 88).

Scheme for the Adverb.

ADVERB.

+Classes+. Time (75). Place (75). Degree (75). Manner (75).

+Modification+--Comparison. Pos. Deg. (87, 88). Comp. Deg. (87, 88). Sup. Deg. (87, 88).

+Schemes for the Conj., Prep., and Int+.

THE CONJUNCTION.-- +Classes+. Co-ordinate (36, 76). No Modifications. Subordinate (36, 76). No Modifications.

THE PREPOSITION (34, 41).--No Classes. No Modifications.

THE INTERJECTION (36).--No Classes. No Modifications.

+Model for Written Parsing adapted to all Parts of Speech+.--_Oh! it has a voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away_.

CLASSIFICATION. MODIFICATIONS. SYNTAX. _Sentence_. Oh! Class: Int. Voice: Independent. Sub-C.: Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:

it Class: Pro. Voice: Sub. of _has_. Sub-C.: Per. Mode: Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Sing. Gen.: Neut. Case: Nom. Deg. of Comp.: Pred. of _it_.

has Class: Vb. Voice: Act. Sub-C.: Ir., Tr. Mode: Ind. Tense: Pres. Per.: 3d. Num.: Sing. Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:

a Class: Adj. Voice: Mod. of _voice_. Sub-C.: Def. Mode: Tense: Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.: ----

voice Class: N. Voice: Obj. Com. of _has_. Sub-C.: Com. Mode: Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Sing. Gen.: Neut. Case: Obj. Deg. of Comp.:

for Class: Prep. Voice: Shows Rel. of Sub-C.: Mode: _has_ to Tense: _those_. Per.: Num.: Gen.: Case: Deg. of Comp.:

those Class: Pro. Voice: Prin. word after Sub-C.: Adj. Mode: _for_. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: M.or F. Case: Obj. Deg. of Comp.:

who Class: Pro. Voice: Sub. of _lie_ and Sub-C.: Rel. Mode: _waste_. Tense: Per.: 3d. Num.: Plu. Gen.: M.or F. Case: Nom. Deg. of Comp.: