Chapter 11

Before Lesson 8 is assigned, the pupils may be required to note, in Lessons 6 and 7, the subjects that add _s_ to denote more than one, and then to mark the changes that occur in the predicates when the _s_ is dropped from these subjects. In Lesson 8, the predicates may be changed by adding or dropping _s_, and other subjects may be found to correspond. In Lesson 9, _s_ may be dropped from the plural subjects, and other predicates may be found to agree.

At this stage of the work we should give no formal rules, and should avoid such technical terms as _number, person, tense_, etc. The pupils may be led to discover rules for themselves, and to state them informally. Exercises and questions may be so directed that the pupils may draw some such conclusion as the following:--

When a simple form of the verb is used to tell what one thing does, _s_ or _es_ is added (unless the subject is _I_ or _you_).

Let the pupils see that the _s_-form of the verb is used only in telling what one thing _does_, not what it _did_; as, "The boy _runs_," "The boy _ran_"; and that its subject always stands for the one spoken of; as, "_He runs_," "_I run_."

Before Lesson 12 is assigned, attention may be called to the use of _is, was_, and _has_, in Lesson 11 and elsewhere. For the predicates introduced by these words let the pupils find subjects which name more than one, that they may note the change of _is_ to _are_, _was_ to _were_, and _has_ to _have_. The forms _does_ and _do_ may also be introduced, and these exercises continued till the pupils are led to discover some such rule as the following:--

_Is, was, has_, and _does_ are used with subjects denoting but one. _Are, were, have_, and _do_ are used with subjects denoting more than one.

We suggest that the form of a question and the use of the question mark be introduced after Lesson 12, and that the pupils be allowed to change the sentences in Lessons 11 and 12 by placing the subject after the first auxiliary. A straight line may be drawn under each subject, and a waving line under each predicate, thus:--

~Was~ /Napoleon/ ~banished?~

The sentences given for analysis will furnish material for making interrogative sentences, and for justifying the agreement of verbs.

In connection with Lesson 19 attention may be called to the agreement of verbs with _I_ and _you_. Exercises may be given from which the pupils will draw the following conclusions:--

_I_ can be used with _am, was, have_, and _do_. _You_ may mean one or more than one, but the verb always agrees as if _you_ meant more than one.

Exercises may be given requiring the pupils to use such expressions as "You _were_," "They _were_," "We _were_," "He _doesn't_," etc., and to repeat them aloud till the ear is accustomed to the right form.

When predicate verbs immediately follow their subjects, there is little danger of errors in agreement, except that _was_ is often used incorrectly for _were_, and _don't_ for _doesn't_. The chief object of introducing these exercises here is to train the pupils' observation so that they will readily and naturally note the agreement of the subject and predicate when these terms are transposed, or are separated by other words. To determine the correct form of the verb in such cases, let the pupils see how it sounds when placed immediately after its subject. We suggest exercises like the following:--

1 is are 2 was were 3 has have 4 does do 5 comes come 6 goes go 7 thinks think 8 writes write

1. With what kind of letter ~(4)~ _each_ of these names ~begin~? 2. Under this rule ~(1) found~ important _exceptions_. 3. The _farm_, with all the cattle and horses, ~(2) sold~. 4. With what mark ~(4)~ imperative _sentences_ ~end~? 5. Every _effort_ of the friends of these measures (3) failed. 6. There (5) trying _times_ in every man's life. 7. _One_ of them (6) to Vassar College. 8. Not _one_ in ten (7) about this. 9. _Neither_ of you (8) correctly. 10. After this (5) the calisthenic _exercises_. 11. A _cargo_ of Delaware peaches (3) arrived. 12. There (6) the cars. 13. There (6) a _train_ of cars.

After these blanks have been filled with the verbs above, as indicated by the numbers, the sentences may be repeated aloud till the correct form is familiar.

Let the pupils see that in (2), Lesson 36, _were identified_ is asserted of two things, and that in (3) _was anticipated_ is asserted of one of two things, but not of both. Let them give other examples of connected subjects with verbs singular in form, and with verbs plural in form. The meaning of _singular_ and _plural_ may be explained, and the pupils may form some such rule as the following:--

With two or more subjects connected by _and_ the verb agrees in the plural.

With two or more singular subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_ the verb agrees in the singular.

The pupils may examine such sentences as--

1. Each word and gesture _was_ suited to the thought; 2. Every bud, leaf, and blade of grass _rejoices_ after the warm rain; 3. No dew, no rain, no cloud _comes_ to the relief of the parched earth;--

and note that _each_, _every_, and _no_ show that the things named in the different subjects are taken separately, and that the verbs are therefore singular.

Such sentences as--

"In the death of Franklin, a philosopher and statesman _was_ lost to the world"--

may be given to show that subjects connected by _and_ may name the same thing, and so take a verb in the singular.

Such examples as the following may be given and justified:--

1. Beauty and utility _are_ combined in nature. 2. Either beauty or utility _appears_ in every natural object. 3. Here _is_ neither beauty nor utility. 4. Time and tide _wait_ for no man. 5. Wisdom and prudence _dwell_ with the lowly man. 6. _Does_ either landlord or tenant profit by this bill? 7. Neither landlords nor tenants _profit_ by this bill. 8. Every fly, bee, beetle, and butterfly _is_ provided with six feet. 9. That desperate robber and murderer _was_ finally secured. 10. That desperate robber and that murderer _were_ finally secured. 11. The builder and owner of the yacht _has_ sailed from Liverpool. 12. The builder and the owner of the yacht _have_ sailed from Liverpool. 13. A lame and blind man _was_ provided with food and lodging. 14. A lame and a blind man _were_ provided with food and lodging.

Particular attention may be called to examples 9-14, that the pupils may note the effect of repeating _that_, _the_, and _a_.

Pupils should early learn that rules in grammar should not be followed rigidly and blindly, as they generally have variations and exceptions. Caution, however, should be used in presenting exceptions, lest the pupils become confused. They may be presented in reviews after the rules and general principles are well understood. They need not be formally stated, but may be introduced in the way of observation lessons that appeal to the judgment rather than to the memory. In this way such constructions as the following may be introduced:--

1. Neither he nor _I am _going. (Better--He is not going, nor am I.) 2. Neither John nor his _sisters were_ there. 3. _Action_, and not words, _is_ needed. 4. _Bread and milk is_ good food. 5. The _committee are_ unable to agree on _their_ report. 6. The _committee has_ made _its_ report.

Other examples may be given till the pupils are led to discover that in examples like (1) and (2) the verb agrees with its nearest subject, and that the plural subject is usually placed next to the verb; that in (3) the verb agrees with the affirmative subject, another verb being understood with the negative subject; that in (4) "bread and milk" represents one article of food; and that in (5) the individuals of the committee are thought of, while in (6) the committee as a whole is thought of. In (5) and (6) the agreement of the pronoun may also be noted. Pronouns may be introduced into many of the preceding exercises and the pupils led to apply to the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent what has been learned of the agreement of the verb with its subject. Let the pupils determine why the following connected subjects are arranged in the proper order:--

1. You and I are invited. 2. Mary and I are invited. 3. You and Mary are invited. 4. You and Mary and I are invited.

WRITING NAMES--CAPITALS AND ABBREVIATIONS. [Footnote: For list of abbreviations see p. 191.]

Pupils may copy the following list of names, and note all peculiarities in form:--

Texas, state, river, Red River, city, Albany, New Orleans, Kansas City, statesman, Thomas Jefferson, Thos. Jefferson, author, Charles Dickens, Chas. Dickens, writer, George William Curtis, Geo. Wm. Curtis, Geo. W. Curtis, poet, John Greenleaf Whittier, John G. Whittier, J. G. Whittier, gulf, sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, lake, Lake Erie, general, General Robert Edmund Lee, Gen. Robt. E. Lee, doctor, Doctor Valentine Mott, Dr. V. Mott, professor, Prof. Goldwin Smith.

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote "The Song of Hiawatha." John Bunyan wrote "The Pilgrim's Progress." The subject for composition was "A Day in the Woods."

We give the following questions to illustrate our method of conducting an

+Observation Lesson+.--Are _city_ and _Albany_ both names? What difference can you discover in meaning? What in form? Which of the names just written are _class_ names? Which are _individual_ names? Mention an individual name made up of two names; one of three names; one of four. How many capitals do you find in each of the names just mentioned? Mention seven words that are written without capitals as class names, and again with capitals as parts of individual names. Mention a word that is shortened, or _abbreviated_, by omitting all but the first, or _initial_, letter. Mention an _abbreviation_ containing two letters; one containing three; one containing four. What new use of the period have you discovered in this exercise? What three words in this exercise are used together as the title of a book? What four as the title of a poem? What five as the subject of a school composition? Each of these groups may be regarded as a kind of individual name. Besides the first word, what words begin with capitals in each of these three groups? Notice that these are the principal words.

For another exercise the pupils may copy the following sentences, noting carefully capitals and punctuation marks:--

1. The city of Chicago is on Lake Michigan. 2. The steamer _City of Chicago_ sails from Jersey City. 3. The island of Cuba is under Spanish rule. 4. The Isle of Man is in the Irish Sea. 5. The Hon. Wm. E. Gladstone is an English statesman. 6. The subject for composition was "The View from my Window." 7. In the evening Aunt Mary entertained my cousin and me with stories of Uncle Remus. 8. Miss Evans--afterward Mrs. Lewes--was the author of "The Mill on the Floss." 9. We may call the Supreme Being our Heavenly Father. 10. The Old Testament points to the coming of a Messiah. 11. George I., George II., George III., George IV., and William IV. preceded Victoria.

The teacher may find the following questions suggestive:--

+Observation Lesson+.--Is _Chicago_, or _city of Chicago_ the individual name of the place mentioned in (1)? Is _Chicago_, or _City of Chicago_ the name of the steamer mentioned in (2)? Is the town mentioned in (2) named _Jersey_, or _Jersey City_? Is the body of water mentioned in (1) known as _Michigan_, or _Lake Michigan_? What is the name of the island mentioned in (3)?--in (4)? Is _Irish_, or _Irish Sea_ the name of the body of water mentioned in (4)?

Notice that _Spanish_, in (3), and _English_, in (5), are not names, or nouns. They begin with capitals, because they are derived from the individual names _Spain_ and _England_.

What names in (7) usually denote relationship? Notice that such words as _uncle, captain, professor_, etc., do not necessarily begin with capitals unless prefixed to individual names.

What group of words in (6) is treated as an individual name? What in (8)? Which words of these groups are regarded as the most important?

In (8) do you find a period after _Miss_?--after _Mrs._?

_Miss_ is not written as an abbreviation.

What words in (9) and (10) are used as names of the Deity? What is _Old Testament_ the particular name of?

What do you discover in the names found in (11)?

For other exercises, pupils may be required to bring in lists of geographical and biographical names, titles of books, etc.

We earnestly recommend the introduction here of letter-writing to illustrate the use of capitals, abbreviations, and punctuation. (See pp. 146-161.) The writing of _headings, introductions, conclusions_, and _superscriptions_ will give most excellent practice in capitals, etc. The _body_ of the letter may be directed to the same end. For instance, an invitation to a friend may be accompanied by a description of the route to be taken and of the places or objects of interest to be seen on the way. Or the writer may mention some of the books he has read, with the names of the characters and of the places mentioned.

ADJECTIVES--CHOICE AND ARRANGEMENT.

Words denoting quality form a very large and important group. Our knowledge of things about us is a knowledge of their qualities. A writer's style is, to a large extent, determined by his use of adjectives. We therefore recommend special drill in the choice and the use of adjectives. The exercises given below may serve as suggestions to the teacher. Groups of adjectives like the following may be presented, the pupils being required to join them to appropriate nouns:--

_Some Qualities learned directly through the Senses_.

+Seeing+, scarlet crimson florid sallow opaque dingy vivid gorgeous gaudy variegated verdant transparent

+Hearing+, audible stunning thundering deafening purling husky monotonous discordant melodious

+Smelling+, fragrant balmy odorous rancid fetid aromatic

+Tasting+, acid acrid pungent delicious insipid brackish palatable savory luscious

+Feeling+. rough gritty hard keen tepid sultry

Pupils will find little difficulty in largely increasing the lists above. Many other groupings may be made; as, of qualities learned by comparison, measurement, or experiment; qualities of the mind; qualities pertaining to right and wrong, etc.

Groups of nouns like the following may be made, and the pupils may be required to mention as many qualities as possible belonging to each of the things named:--

chalk ice brooks clouds water snow ocean music

Pupils may mention animals properly described by the following adjectives:--

timid fleet cunning ferocious gentle graceful sagacious venomous

Careless persons and those that have a meager list of adjectives at command overwork and abuse such words as--

_nice, awful, horrid, splendid, elegant, lovely_.

We hear of _nice mountains_, _awful pens_, _horrid ink_, _splendid pie_, _elegant beef_, _lovely cheese_, etc.

Pupils may study the meaning of the six adjectives last mentioned, and use them to fill the following blanks:--

| distinction ----------+ workmanship | calculation

| stillness ----------+ chasm | rumbling

| child ----------+ features | character

| palace ----------+ victory | illumination

| manners ----------+ taste | furniture

| deeds ----------+ dreams | butchery

This work may very profitable be extended.

A word picture is often spoiled by using too many adjectives; as,

"A _great_, _large_, _roomy_, spacious hall"; "_Superb_, delicious, _magnificent_ pumpkin-pie"; "A _stingy_, miserly, _close-fisted_ fellow."

The italicized words may be omitted.

Pupils should be taught to watch for such errors, and to correct them.

Pupils may be required to copy choice selections from literature, and to note carefully capitals, punctuation, and the use of adjectives. We offer the following exercise as a specimen:--

We piled with care our nightly stack Of wood against the chimney-back,-- The oaken log, green, huge, and thick, And on its top the stout back-stick; The knotty fore-stick laid apart, And filled between with curious art The ragged brush; then, hovering near, We watched the first red blaze appear, Heard the sharp crackle, caught the gleam On whitewashed wall and sagging beam, Until the old, rude-furnished room Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom.

_Whittier.--Snow-Bound_.

+Observation Lesson+.--Of what are the lines above a picture? Where, and in what kind of house, do you think this picture was seen?

What object is pictured by the help of five adjectives? Are the adjectives that precede the name of this object of the same rank? Are those that follow of the same rank? What noun is modified by three adjectives of different rank? What noun by three adjectives two of which are of the same rank? What difference is found in the punctuation of these several groups?

Notice how the noun _crackle_ crackles as you pronounce it, and how the adjective _sharp_ makes it penetrate. Notice how strong a picture is made in the two lines immediately before the last. The adjectives here used bring out the most prominent qualities of the room, and these qualities bring along with them into the imagination all the other qualities. This is what we must try to make our adjectives do.

Point out all the adjectives in the selection above, and explain the office of each.

What peculiar use of capitals do you discover in these lines of poetry?

Much that has been suggested above concerning the use of adjectives will apply to adverbs also.

ARRANGEMENT.

The following exercises are given to show how pupils may discover for themselves the _natural order_ of words and phrases:--

(_a_) Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. (_b_) William's sister Mary is an excellent musician. (_c_) Everything suddenly appeared so strangely bright. (_d_) We saw it distinctly. (_e_) We had often been there. (_f_) Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo.

+Observation Lesson+.--The words and the phrases in the sentences above stand in their _Natural Order_.

From (_a_) and (_b_) determine the natural order of the subject, predicate, and complement. From (_b_) determine the natural order of a possessive modifier, of an explanatory modifier, and of an adjective. From (_c_), (_d_), and (_e_) determine the several positions of an adverb joined to a verb. Determine from (_c_) the position of an adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb. Determine from (_a_) and (_f_) the natural order of a phrase.

Pupils may copy the following, and note the arrangement and the punctuation of the phrases:--

(_g_) This place is endeared to me by many associations. (_h_) To me, this place is endeared by many associations. (_i_) Your answers, with few exceptions, have been correctly given. (_j_) He applied for the position, without a recommendation.

+Observation Lesson+.--Phrases in their natural order follow the words they modify. When two or more phrases belong to the same word, the one most closely modifying it stands nearest to it.

In the first sentence above, _to me_ tells to whom the place is endeared; _by many associations_ tells how it is endeared to me, and is therefore placed after to me. Try the effect of placing _to me_ last. Phrases, like adjectives, may be of different rank.

Phrases are often transposed, or placed out of their natural order. Notice that _to me_, in (_h_) above, is transposed, and thus made emphatic, and that it is set off by the comma.

In (_i_), the phrase is loosely thrown in as if it were not essential, thus making a break in the sentence. To make this apparent to the eye we set the phrase off by the comma.

Place the phrase of (_i_) in three other positions, and set it off. When the phrase is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence, how many commas do you need to set it off? How many, when it is in the middle?

Do you find any choice in the four positions of this phrase? After having been told that your answers were correct, would it be a disappointment to be told that they were not all correct? Is the interest in a story best kept up by first telling the important points and then the unimportant particulars? What then do you think of placing this phrase at the end?

What does the last phrase of (_j_) modify? Take out the comma, and then see whether there can be any doubt as to what the phrase modifies.

In the placing of adverbs and phrases great freedom is often allowable, and the determining of their best possible position affords an almost unlimited opportunity for the exercise of taste and judgment.

Such questions as those on (_i_) above may suggest a mode of easy approach to what is usually relegated to the province of rhetoric. Let the pupils see that phrases may be transposed for various reasons--for emphasis, as in (_h_) above; for the purpose of exciting the reader's curiosity and holding his attention till the complete statement is made, as in (_i_) above, or in, "In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce, he approached"; for the sake of balancing the sentence by letting some of the modifying terms precede, and some follow, the principal parts, as, "In 1837, on the death of William IV., Victoria succeeded to the throne"; and for other reasons.

Other selections maybe made and these exercises continued, the pupils discussing fully the effects of all possible changes.

Pupils may note the transposed words and phrases in the following sentences, explaining their office and the effect of the transposition:--

1. Victories, indeed, they were. 2. Down came the masts. 3. Here stands the man. 4. Doubtful seemed the battle. 5. Wide open stood the doors. 6. A mighty man is he. 7. That gale I well remember. 8. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 9. Blood-red became the sun. 10. Louder waxed the applause. 11. Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong. 12. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 13. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 14. So died the great Columbus of the skies. 15. Aeneas did, from the flames of Troy, upon his shoulders, the old Anchises bear. 16. Such a heart in the breast of my people beats. 17. The great fire up the deep and wide chimney roared. 18. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, the most difficult and valuable.

Pupils may read or write the following sentences in the transposed order, and explain the effect of the change:--

19. He could not avoid it. 20. He would not escape. 21. I must go. 22. He ended his tale here. 23. It stands written so. 24. She seemed young and sad. 25. I will make one more effort to save you. 26. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. 27. I came into the world helpless. 28. A sincere word was never utterly lost. 29. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin.

ORDER OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

30. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? 31. What states border on the Gulf of Mexico? 32. Whom did you see? 33. What is poetry? 34. Which course will you choose? 35. Why are the days shorter in winter? 36. When was America discovered? 37. Were you there? 38. Has the North Pole been reached?

+Observation Lesson+.--When the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, is the order natural, or transposed? See (30) and (31) above.

When the interrogative word is object or attribute complement, or a modifier of either, what is the order? See (32), (33), and (34).

When the interrogative word is an adverb, what is the order? See (35) and (36).

When there is no interrogative word, what is the order? See (37) and (38).

The sentences above will furnish profitable review lessons in _analysis_.

REVIEW--COMPOSITION.