Part 36

OF THE APONEUROSES.

I. _Of the Aponeuroses for Covering._

Their division. 299

_Aponeuroses for general covering._ 300

_Forms._—They are accommodated to the extremities, &c. _ib._

_Tensor muscles.—Organization._—Examples of the tensor muscles.—Their uses relative to the aponeuroses.—Analogy with the tendons and difference from them.—Arrangement of the fibres. 301

_Functions._ 302

_Aponeuroses for partial covering._—Examples.—General uses of these aponeuroses. 303

II. _Of the Aponeuroses of Insertion._

_Aponeuroses of insertion with a broad surface._—Their origin.—Their uses.—The identity of their nature with that of the tendons.—Experiments. 304

_Aponeuroses of insertion in the form of an arch._—They are rare.—They exist where vessels pass through.—They do not compress them. 305

_Aponeuroses of insertion with separate fibres._ 306

ARTICLE NINTH.

OF THE TENDONS.

I. _Form of the Tendons._

Relation of the uses with the forms.—Union with the fleshy fibres. 307

II. _Organization of the Tendons._

Method of seeing their fibres advantageously.—They appear to be destitute of blood vessels.—Their tendency to be penetrated with the phosphate of lime. 309

ARTICLE TENTH.

OF THE LIGAMENTS.

I. _Ligaments with, Regular Fasciæ._

General arrangement. 311

II. _Ligaments with Irregular Fasciæ._ 312

FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.

Organs which compose it. 315

ARTICLE FIRST.

OF THE FORMS OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.

Division into three classes of the organs of this system.—Characters of each class. 315

ARTICLE SECOND.

ORGANIZATION OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.

I. _Texture peculiar to the Organization of the Fibro-Cartilaginous System._

It arises, 1st, from a fibrous substance; 2d, from a cartilaginous one.—It owes its resistance to the first and its elasticity to the second.—Action of caloric, air and water upon the fibro-cartilaginous texture.—It reddens by maceration.—Absence of the perichondrium upon most of the fibro-cartilages. 317

II. _Parts common to the Organization of the Fibro-Cartilaginous System._ 320

ARTICLE THIRD.

PROPERTIES OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.

I. _Physical Properties._

Elasticity and suppleness united. 320

II. _Properties of Texture._

Extensibility.—It is quite evident in it.—Contractility.—Difference from elasticity. 321

III. _Vital Properties._

They are inconsiderable.—Influence of the obscurity of these forces upon the properties of the fibro-cartilages. 322

ARTICLE FOURTH.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.

I. _State of this System in the First Age._

Mode of development of the three classes. 323

II. _State of this System in the after Ages._

General rigidity of these organs.—Consequences.—Ossification of the fibro-cartilages rare. 325

MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.

Difference between the muscles of the two lives.—Observations upon those of animal life. 327

ARTICLE FIRST.

OF THE FORMS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.

Division of these muscles into long, broad and short. 327

I. _Forms of the Long Muscles._

Place which they occupy.—Their division.—Their separation and reunion.—Peculiar forms of the long muscles of the spine. 328

II. _Forms of the Broad Muscles._

Where they are situated.—Thickness.—Peculiar forms of the broad pectoral muscles. 330

III. _Forms of the Short Muscles._

Where they are found.—Their arrangement.—Remarks upon the three species of muscles. 331

ARTICLE SECOND.

ORGANIZATION OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.

I. _Texture peculiar to this Organization._

Arrangement of this texture into fasciculi.—Its division into fibres.—Length of the fleshy fibres compared with that of the muscle.—Their direction.—Their figure.—Their softness.—Ease of their rupture in the dead body.—Difficulty in the living. 332

_Composition of the muscular texture._—Action of the air in desiccation and putrefaction.—Action of cold water.—Maceration and its products.—Ease with which the colouring substance is removed.—Analogy of the remaining texture with the fibrin of the blood.—Relation of the forces with this texture.—Action of boiling water.—Some peculiar phenomena of common boiled flesh.—Roasting of the fleshy texture.—Singular affinity of the digestive juices to this sort of texture.—General observations.—Influence of sex and the genital organs upon the fleshy texture. 336

II. _Parts common to the Organization of this System._

_Cellular texture._—Manner in which it envelops the fibres.—Its uses for muscular motion.—Experiment.—Fatty muscles. 343

_Blood vessels._—Arteries.—Of the blood of the muscles.—Of their colour.—Free and combined state of the colouring substance.—Veins.—Remarks upon the injection of them. 346

_Nerves._—There are hardly any but those of animal life.—Their difference in the extensors and the flexors.—Manner in which the nerves penetrate the muscles. 348

ARTICLE THIRD.

PROPERTIES OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.

I. _Properties of Texture. Extensibility._

This property is continually in action.—It is in proportion to the length of the fibres.—Its exercise in diseases. 350

_Contractility of texture._—Phenomena of the antagonists.—Distinction in these phenomena of that which belongs to the vital properties from that which belongs to those of texture.—Of the contractility of texture in diseases.—Extent and quickness of the contractions.—They continue after death.—Essential differences between the contractility of texture and horny hardening. Their parallel. 352

II. _Vital Properties._

_Properties of animal life.—Sensibility._—Most of the ordinary agents do not develop it.—It is put into action by repeated contractions.—Of the sensation of lassitude.—Sensibility of the muscles in their affections. 359

_Animal Contractility._—It should be considered in three relations. 361

_Animal contractility considered in the brain._—The principle of this property exists in this organ.—Proofs drawn from observation.—Proofs derived from diseases.—Proofs borrowed from experiments upon animals.—Cases in which the brain is foreign to the muscles. 362

_Animal contractility considered in the nerves._—Influence of the spinal marrow upon this property.—Observations and experiments.—Influence of the nerves.—Observations and experiments.—All the nerves do not transmit equally the different irradiations of the brain.—Direction of the propagation of the nervous influence. 367

_Animal contractility considered in the muscles._—Necessary conditions in the muscle for it to contract.—Obstacles to contraction.—Various experiments. 374

_Causes which bring into action animal contractility._—Division of these causes.—Of the will.—Of the involuntary causes.—Direct excitement.—Sympathetic excitement.—Influence of the passions.—Remarks upon the motion of the fœtus. 374

_Duration of the animal contractility after death._—Various experiments.—Consequences relative to respiration.—Variety of the duration of this property.—How it is extinguished. 379

_Organic Properties._—Organic sensibility and insensible organic contractility.—Sensible organic contractility.—Various experiments upon this last property.—Phenomena of irritations.—In order to study this contractility the animal contractility must be destroyed.—How this is done.—Various modes of contraction. 382

_Sympathies._—The animal sensibility is the property especially brought into action by them.—General Remarks.—Sympathies of animal sensibility.—The organic properties are rarely brought into action. 386

_Characters of the vital properties._—Different remarks upon these characters. 388

ARTICLE FOURTH.

PHENOMENA OF THE ACTION OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.

I. _Force of the Muscular Contraction._

Difference according as it is put into action by stimuli or by the cerebral influence.—Experiments.—Influence of muscular organization upon contraction.—The laws of nature the reverse of those of mechanics in the production of motions.—Multiplication of forces.—Uncertainty of calculations upon this point. 390

II. _Quickness of the Contractions._

Varieties according as the contractions are, 1st, from stimuli; 2d, from nervous action.—Different degrees of quickness in different individuals.—Influence of habit upon this degree. 395

III. _Duration of the Contractions._ 397

IV. _State of the Muscles in Contraction._

Different phenomena which they then experience.—Essential remark upon the different modes of contraction. 398

V. _Motions imparted by the Muscles._

_Simple Motions._—1st. In the muscles with a straight direction.—How we determine the uses of these muscles.—2d. In the muscles with a reflected direction.—3d. In those with a circular direction. 400

_Compound Motions._—Almost every motion is compound.—How.—Different examples of compound motions.—Antagonist muscles. 403

VI. _Phenomena of the Relaxation of the Muscles._

They are opposite to the preceding. 406

ARTICLE FIFTH.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.

I. _State of this System in the Fœtus._

It contains but little blood.—Slight contractility at this age.—Influence upon these phenomena, of the blood which then penetrates the muscles.—These organs are then slender and weak. 407

II. _State of this System during Growth._

Sudden effect of the red blood which penetrates the muscles, and of the other irritations which are connected with it.—Colour of the Muscles.—Period of the brightest colour.—Varieties of the action of reagents on the fleshy texture of young animals. 410

III. _State of this System after Growth._

The thickness constantly increases.—The external forms are more evident.—Colour in the adult.—Innumerable variety. 413

IV. _State of this System in Old Age._

Increase of density.—Diminution of cohesion.—Phenomena of the vacillation of the muscles.—Atrophous muscles. 416

V. _State of the System at Death._

Relaxation or stiffness of the muscles. 419

END OF CONTENTS TO VOL. II.

VOLUME THIRD.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

ARTICLE FIRST.

FORMS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.

PAGE

Curved direction of the fibres.—They do not arise from the fibrous system.—Varieties of the muscular forms, according to the organs. 4

ARTICLE SECOND.

ORGANIZATION OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.

General difference of organization from the preceding muscles. 5

I. _Peculiar Texture._

General arrangement of the muscular fibre.—Analogy with the preceding and difference. 6

II. _Common Parts._

Cellular Texture.—Blood vessels.—Nerves of the ganglions and of the brain.—Proportion of each class. 8

ARTICLE THIRD.

PROPERTIES OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.

I. _Properties of Texture._

_Extensibility._—Particular character of this property in the organic muscles.—In aneurisms of the heart and in pregnancy, it is not the extensibility that is brought into action.—Remarks upon this subject. 10

_Contractility._—It is in proportion to extensibility.—The substances contained in the hollow muscles are their antagonists.—Remarks. 14

II. _Vital Properties._

_Sensibility._—Of the lassitude of the organic muscles.—Remarks upon hunger. 15

_Animal Contractility._—It is nothing in these muscles.—Different, experiments.—Observations.—Of the muscles in part voluntary and in part organic.—Experiments.—Remarks upon the bladder, rectum, &c.—Absence of the nervous influence upon the organic muscles. 17

_Organic Properties._—General Remarks. 24

_Of sensible organic contractility considered under the relation of the stimuli._ 25

_Natural stimuli._—Different observations.—Remarks upon the fluids and solids.—Influence of the quality and quantity of the fluids upon the hollow muscles. _ib._

_Artificial stimuli._—Action of these stimuli.—Different modes of action.—Limits of the horny hardening and vital contraction. 28

_Of sensible organic contractility, considered in relation to the organs._ 31

_First variety. Diversity of the muscular texture._—Each muscle is particularly in relation with some determinate substance.—Application of this principle to the natural and foreign fluids. _ib._

_Second variety. Age._—Vivacity of the contractility in infancy.—Consequences.—Opposite phenomenon in old age. 33

_Third Variety. Temperament._—Difference of individuals in regard to organic muscular force.—This force is not always in relation to the animal muscular force.—It cannot be increased like it by habit. 34

_Fourth Variety. Sex._ 35

_Fifth Variety. Season and climate._ 36

_Sensible organic contractility considered in relation to the action of stimulants upon the organs._—The constant existence of an intermediate organ for this action.—Nature of this intermediate organ. _ib._

_Sensible organic contractility considered in relation to its duration after death._—Difference of this duration according to the kind of death.—Remarks. 38

_Sympathies._—Sympathies of the heart.—Sympathies of the stomach.—Remarks upon bilious vomitings.—General observations.—Sympathies of the intestines, the bladder, &c. 40

_Character of the vital properties._—Vital energy very considerable in this system.—Its affections act upon its predominant vital force.—The infrequency of the affections which suppose a derangement of the organic properties. 44

ARTICLE FOURTH.

PHENOMENA OF THE ACTION OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.

I. _Force of Contractions._

Difference from the force of contraction of the preceding system.—It is greater in the vital phenomena than in experiments.—Inaccuracy of calculations. 46

II. _Quickness of the Contractions._

In experiments.—During life.—Comparison with the quickness of the preceding muscles. 49

III. _Duration of the Contractions._ 50

IV. _State of the Muscles in Contraction._

Difference in this respect between the heart and the gastric muscles. _ib._

V. _Motions imparted by the Organic Muscles._ 51

VI. _Phenomena of the Relaxation of the Organic Muscles._

Differences of this relaxation from the active dilatation of the muscles.—Proofs of the phenomena of this dilatation. 52

ARTICLE FIFTH.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE.

I. _State of this System in the Fœtus._

Predominance of the heart.—State of the other muscles.—Weakness of the organic contractility at this age. 55

II. _State of the Organic Muscular System during Growth._

General increase of action at birth.—Of the growth in thickness and of that in length.—Their differences. 58

III. _State of the Organic Muscular System after Growth._ 61

IV. _State of the Organic Muscular System in Old Age._

This system outlives, if we may so say, the preceding.—Phenomenon resulting from its weakness. 62

MUCOUS SYSTEM.

ARTICLE FIRST.

OF THE DIVISIONS AND FORMS OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM.

I. _Of the two general Mucous Membranes, the Gastro-pulmonary and the Genito-urinary._

Difference of these two membranes.—Their relation. 66

II. _Adhering Surface of the Mucous Membranes._

Its relations.—It is everywhere subjacent to the muscles.—Sub-mucous texture.—Experiments. 69

III. _Free surface of the Mucous Membranes._

Of the folds it exhibits.—1st. Of those which comprehend all the membranes.—2d. Of those which are permanent upon the mucous surface.—3d. Of those which are owing to a state of vacuity of the hollow organs.—Different experiments.—The extent of the mucous surfaces is always nearly the same, whatever may be the state of their organs.—Relation of their free surface with external bodies.—Their sensibility is accommodated to this relation.—The term _foreign body_ is merely comparative. 70

ARTICLE SECOND.

ORGANIZATION OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM.

I. _Texture peculiar to this Organization._

What it presents for consideration.

_Mucous Corion._—Its variable thickness.—Mucous nature of the membrane of the ear.—Pathological consequences.—Softness of the mucous texture.—Action of the air, water, caloric, the acids and the digestive juices upon the mucous texture. 76

_Mucous papillæ._—Their varieties of form.—Their nervous nature.—Proofs of this nervous nature.—Their influence upon the sensibility of the mucous organs. 83

II. _Common Parts._

_Of the mucous glands and the fluids which they secrete._—Situation.—Forms.—Size.—Texture. 86

_Mucous fluids._—Physical properties.—Action of different agents upon them.—Their functions.—Parts in which they are most abundant and those in which they are less so.—Susceptibility of being increased by any irritation made upon their excretories.—Consequences.—Remarks upon the excitement of the mucous surfaces in diseases.—Uses of the mucous membranes in relation to the habitual evacuation of their fluids.—General remarks upon the secreted fluids.—Singular sensation arising from the continuance of the mucous fluids upon their respective surfaces. 88

_Blood vessels._—Their varieties of proportion.—Their superficial position.—Consequence.—Redness of the mucous system.—It often loses it.—Experiments upon the state of the mucous vessels in the fulness and vacuity of their hollow organs.—Other experiments upon the influence of the gases upon the colour of the mucous system.—Causes of its redness.—Colouring substance combined and free. 96

_Exhalants._—Is there exhalation upon the mucous system?—Pulmonary exhalation.—A great part of the pulmonary perspiration arises from the solution of the mucous juices.—Other mucous exhalations.—Hemorrhages. 105

_Absorbents._—Proofs of the mucous absorption.—Irregularity of this absorption.—Cause of this irregularity. 107

_Nerves._—Those of the brain.—Those of the ganglions.—Their respective distribution upon this system. 108

ARTICLE THIRD.

PROPERTIES OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM.

I. _Properties of Texture._

They are less than they at first seem to be.—They are however real.—Their variety.—The mucous ducts are not obliterated by the contractility of texture when they are empty. 109

II. _Vital properties._

_Properties of animal life._—Acute sensibility of the mucous system.—Influence of habit upon this property.—Consequences of this remark.—Mucous sensibility in inflammations. 111

_Properties of organic life._—Organic sensibility and insensible contractility are very evident here.—Why.—Consequences as it respects diseases.—Varieties of these properties.-Species of sensible organic contractility in the mucous texture. 114

_Sympathies._—How we shall divide them. 117

_Active Sympathies._—Example of these sympathies for each vital property. 118

_Passive Sympathies._—The predominant ones are those of insensible organic contractility.—Why. 120

_Character of the vital properties._—Vital activity of this system.—Its varieties.—Consequences as it regards diseases.—Remarks upon the stomachic sympathies. 123

ARTICLE FOURTH.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM.

I. _State of the Mucous System in the First Age._

It follows the state of the organs to which it belongs.—Delicacy of the papillæ.—The mucous redness is then deeper.—Sudden change at birth.—Why.—Phenomenon of puberty. 125

II. _State of the Mucous System in the After Ages._

Its phenomena in the adult.—Its phenomena in old age. 129

SEROUS SYSTEM.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

ARTICLE FIRST.

OF THE EXTENT, FORMS AND FLUIDS OF THE SEROUS SYSTEM.

General arrangement of its membranes.—Of the serous surface considered in general.—Every serous membrane is a sac without an opening. 131

I. _Free Surface of the Serous Membranes._

It is smooth and polished.—This attribute is foreign to compression.—This surface insulates the organs to which the serous surfaces belong.—Its influence upon the motion of these organs.—Adhesions of the serous surfaces.—Their division. 134

II. _Adhering Surface of the Serous System._

Means of union.—The serous membranes often change relations with their organs.—This is owing to the laxity of the adhesions.—Adhesions more close. 140

III. _Serous Fluids._

Their quantity.—Varieties of this quantity.—Experiments.—Morbid varieties.—Nature of these fluids. 142

ARTICLE SECOND.

ORGANIZATION OF THE SEROUS SYSTEM.

The serous membranes have but one layer.—Its colour.—Its thickness. 144

I. _Cellular nature of the Serous Texture._

Proofs of this cellular nature.—Experiments by maceration, ebullition, desiccation, stewing and putrefaction.—Differences between the cellular and serous textures. 145

II. _Parts common to the organization of the Serous System._

_Exhalants._—Various proofs of serous exhalation. 149