Part 35

I. _Relation of the two Capillary Systems, Pulmonary and General._

How all the blood of the general system can go through the pulmonary.—Difference of one from the other as it respects the course of this fluid. 55

II. _Remarks upon the Circulation of the Pulmonary Capillaries._

Peculiar character of pulmonary inflammations.—Phenomena to which they give rise.—Of the pulmonary circulation in various other diseases. 58

III. _Alteration of the Blood in the Pulmonary Capillaries._ 63

IV. _Remarks upon the state of the Lungs in Dead Bodies._

Their proportions very various from engorgement.—They are hardly ever in the natural state.—Why.—Consequences. 64

EXHALANT SYSTEM.

General Remarks upon the differences of exhalations and absorptions. 67

ARTICLE FIRST.

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE EXHALANTS.

I. _Origin, Course and Termination._

Different hypotheses respecting these vessels.—What observation shows us concerning them. 69

II. _Division of the Exhalants._

They can be referred to three classes.—Table of these classes and their division. 71

III. _Difference of the Exhalations._ 73

ARTICLE SECOND.

PROPERTIES, FUNCTIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXHALANT SYSTEM.

I. _Properties._

We are ignorant of those of texture.—The organic are very evident in it. 74

_Characters of the Vital Properties._—They vary in each system.—Consequences as it regards functions. _ib._

II. _Of Natural Exhalations._

They are all derived from the vital properties.—They vary consequently like these properties.—Proofs.—Of sympathetic exhalations. 75

III. _Of Preternatural Exhalations._

_Sanguineous exhalation.—Hemorrhage of the excrementitious exhalants._—Hemorrhage from the skin.—Hemorrhages from the mucous surfaces.—They take place by exhalation.—Proofs.—Experiments.—Of active and passive hemorrhages.—Differences between hemorrhages by rupture and by exhalation, between those of the capillaries and those of the great vessels. 78

_Hemorrhages of the recrementitious exhalants._—Hemorrhages of the serous surfaces.—Observations concerning dead bodies.—Cellular hemorrhages.—Other hemorrhages of the exhalants. 85

_Preternatural exhalations, not sanguineous._—Varieties of the exhaled fluids, according to the state of the vital forces of the exhalants.—Different examples of these varieties. 87

IV. _Of the preternatural development of the exhalants._

It is especially in cysts that it takes place.—The secreted fluids are never preternaturally poured out like the exhaled.—Why.—Of the natural emunctories. 88

ABSORBENT SYSTEM.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

ARTICLE FIRST.

OF THE ABSORBENT VESSELS.

I. _Origin of the Absorbents._

Table of absorptions.—Of external absorptions.—Of internal absorptions.—Of the nutritive absorptions.—It is impossible to know the mode of origin of the absorbents.—Interlacing of the branches. 91

II. _Course of the Absorbents._

Their division into two layers, superficial and deep-seated.—Their arrangement in the extremities and the trunk. 95

_Forms of the absorbents in their course._—They are cylindrical, full of knots, &c.—Consequences of these forms.—The absorbents have not as great capacity during life as in the dead body. 97

_Of the capacity of the absorbents in their course._—Manner of ascertaining it.—Extreme varieties which it exhibits.—Capacity of the absorbents compared with that of the veins. 99

_Anastomoses of the absorbents in their course._—Different modes of these anastomoses.—Remarks upon the lymphatic circulation. 102

_Remarks upon the difference of dropsies that are produced by the increase of exhalation, and those that are the effect of a diminution of absorption._—Cases that may be referred to one or the other cause. 104

III. _Termination of the Absorbents._

Trunks of termination.—Their disproportion with the branches.—Consequences.—Difficulties in regard to the motion of the lymph.—Remarks upon venous absorption. 105

IV. _Structure of the Absorbents._

Exterior texture.—Vessels.—Peculiar membrane.—Valves.—Uses of these last. 109

ARTICLE SECOND.

LYMPHATIC GLANDS.

I. _Situation, Size, Forms, &c._

Varieties of their number and situation in the different regions.—Relation with the cellular texture.—Varieties from age, sex, &c. 111

II. _Organization._

_Colour._—Its varieties.—Particular arrangement about the bronchia. 114

_Common parts._—External cellular texture.—Cellular membrane.—Vessels. 115

_Peculiar texture._—Density.—Cells.—Contained fluid.—Properties and phenomena of this texture.—Interlacing of the absorbents. 116

ARTICLE THIRD.

PROPERTIES OF THE ABSORBENT SYSTEM.

I. _Properties of Texture._ 118

II. _Vital Properties._

Animal sensibility.—Its phenomena in the vessels and the glands.—Organic properties.—Their duration after death.—Remarks upon the absorbent faculty of dead bodies. 119

_Characters of the vital properties._—Life is very evident in this system.—Its disposition to inflammation.—Character which this affection has in it. 122

_Differences of the vital properties in the absorbent vessels and their glands._—These differences are remarkable.—Their influence upon diseases. 123

_Sympathies._—Sympathies of the glands.—Sympathies of the vessels.—Remarks upon the engorgements of the lymphatic glands. 124

ARTICLE FOURTH.

OF ABSORPTION.

I. _Influence of the Vital Forces upon this Function._

All depends on the organic properties. 128

II. _Varieties of Absorption._

Different examples.—Of resolution.—Of the absorption of morbific principles. 129

III. _Motion of the Fluids in the Absorbents._

Laws of this motion.—It is not subject to any reflux.—Why. 132

IV. _Of Absorption in the different Ages._

It appears that the internal and external absorptions are opposite at the two extreme ages.—Remarks. 134

V. _Preternatural Absorption._

Absorption of certain fluids different from those naturally absorbed.—Absorption in the cysts. 138

SYSTEMS PECULIAR TO CERTAIN APPARATUS.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

Differences of the systems peculiar to certain apparatus, from those common to all.—Characters of the first.—Their distribution in the apparatus. 139

OSSEOUS SYSTEM.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

ARTICLE FIRST.

OF THE FORMS OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM. DIVISION OF THE BONES.

I. _Of the Long Bones._

Relation of their position with their general uses.—External forms of the body and the extremities.—Internal forms.—Medullary canal.—Its situation, extent and form.—Its use.—It disappears in the first periods of callus.—It is shorter in proportion in childhood. 144

II. _Of the Flat Bones._

Relations of their situation and external forms with the general use of forming the cavities.—Internal forms. 147

III. _Of the Short Bones._

Position.—Internal and external forms.—General uses. 149

IV. _Of the Bony Eminences._

Their division into those, 1st, of articulation; 2d, of insertion; 3d, of reflection; 4th, of impression.—Remarks upon each of these divisions.—Relations of the second with the muscular force.—How these last are formed. 150

V. _Of the Osseous Cavities._

Their division into those, 1st, of insertion; 2d, of reception; 3d, of sliding; 4th, of impression; 5th, of transmission; 6th, of nutrition.—Particular remarks upon each division.—Of the three kinds of canals of nutrition. 153

ARTICLE SECOND.

ORGANIZATION OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.

I. _Texture Peculiar to the Osseous System._

Common division of this texture.

_Texture with cells._—How it is formed.—When it is formed.—Of the cells and their communications.—Experiments. 156

_Compact texture._—Arrangement of its fibres.—Their formation.—Experiments to ascertain their direction.—The osseous layers do not exist.—Proofs.—Influence of rickets upon the compact texture. 158

_Arrangement of the two osseous textures in the three kinds of Bones._—Arrangement of the compact texture.—Two kinds of texture with cells in the long bones.—Proportion of the common texture with cells and the compact texture in the short and broad bones.—The same proportion examined in the cavities and the osseous eminences. 161

_Of the composition of the osseous texture._—There are two principal bases.—Of the saline calcareous substance.—Experiments.—Nature of this substance.—Experiments to ascertain the gelatinous substance.—Different relations of each of these substances with vitality. 164

II. _Common Parts which enter into the organization of the Osseous System._

Three orders of blood vessels.—Arrangement of each.—Experiments.—Proportions according to age.—Communication.—Proofs of the existence of the cellular texture. 167

ARTICLE THIRD.

PROPERTIES OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.

I. _Physical Properties._

Elasticity.—It is in the inverse ratio of the age. 171

II. _Properties of Texture._

Different examples of contractility and extensibility.—Characters of these properties. 171

III. _Vital Properties._

They are obscure. 173

_Characters of these properties._—Slowness of their development.—Their influence upon diseases. 174

_Sympathies._—Their character is always chronic.—General remark upon sympathies. 175

_Seat of the vital properties._—They are not seated in the calcareous substance.—They exist only in the gelatinous.—Experiment which proves it. 177

ARTICLE FOURTH.

OF THE ARTICULATIONS OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.

I. _Division of the Articulations._

_Moveable Articulations.—Observations upon their Motions._—1st. Opposition; it is extensive or confined.—2d. Circumduction; a motion composed of all those of opposition.—3d. Rotation; a motion upon the axis.—4th. Sliding. 180

_Immoveable articulations._—They are on surfaces in juxta-position, inserted into each other or implanted. 182

_Table of the Articulations._ 183

II. _Observations upon the Moveable Articulations._

_First genus._—Situation.—Form of the surfaces.—Rotation and circumduction are inversely in the humerus and the femur.—Why. 184

_Second genus._—Form of the surfaces.—Motions. 186

_Third genus._—Diminution of the motions.—Direction in which they take place. 187

_Fourth genus._—Motions still less. 189

_Fifth genus._—Remarkable obscurity of the motions. 190

III. _Observations upon the Immoveable Articulations._

Situation, forms of each order.—Relation of the structure to the uses. 191

IV. _Of the means of Union between the Articular Surfaces._

_Union of the immoveable Articulations._—Cartilages of union. 193

_Union of moveable articulations._—Ligaments and muscles considered as articular bands. 194

ARTICLE FIFTH.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.

Remarks. 195

I. _State of the Osseous System during Growth._

_Mucous State._—What should be understood by it. 195

_Cartilaginous State._—Period and mode of its development.—Of this state in the broad bones. 197

_Osseous State._—Its phenomena.—Its period. 198

_Progress of the osseous state in the long bones_; 1st, in the middle; 2d, in the extremities. 200

_Progress of the osseous state in the broad bones._—Varieties according to the bones.—Formation of the ossa wormiana. _ib._

_Progress of the osseous state in the short bones._ 202

II. _State of the Osseous System after its Growth._

Increase in thickness.—Composition and decomposition after the termination of growth in thickness.—Experiments.—State of the bones in old age. 203

III. _Peculiar Phenomena of the Development of the Callus._

1st. Fleshy granulations.—2d. Adhesions of these granulations.—3d. Exhalation of gelatine and then of phosphate of lime. 206

IV. _Peculiar Phenomena of the Development of the Teeth._

_Organization of the teeth.—Hard portion of the teeth._—Enamel.—Experiment which distinguishes it from bone.—Its thickness.—Its nature.—Reflections upon its organization.—Osseous portion.—Its form.—Cavity of the tooth. 209

_Soft portion of the tooth._—Its spongy nature.—Its acute sensibility.—Remarks upon its different sympathies. 211

_First dentition considered before cutting._—Follicle.—Membrane of this follicle analogous to the serous membranes.—Albuminous nature of the fluid which lubricates it.—Mode of development of the osseous tooth upon the follicle.—Number of the first teeth. 213

_First dentition considered at the period of cutting._—Mode of cutting.—Accidents.—Their causes. 216

_Second dentition considered before cutting._—Formation of the second follicle. 217

_Second dentition considered at the period of cutting._—Fall of the first teeth.—Appearance of the second.

_Phenomena subsequent to the cutting of the second teeth._—Growth in length and thickness.—Fall of the teeth earlier than the death of the bones.—Why.—State of the jaws after the fall of the teeth. 219

V. _Particular Phenomena of the Development of the Sesamoid Bones._

_General arrangement of the sesamoid bones._—Situation.—Forms. 221

_Fibro-cartilaginous state.—Osseous state._—Phenomena of the patella.—Use of the sesamoid bones. 222

MEDULLARY SYSTEM.

Division of this system. 225

ARTICLE FIRST.

MEDULLARY SYSTEM OF THE FLAT AND SHORT BONES, AND THE EXTREMITIES OF THE LONG ONES.

I. _Origin and Conformation._

It is an expansion of the vessels of the second order. 225

II. _Organization._

There is no medullary membrane.—Vascular interlacing. 226

III. _Properties._

There are only organic ones.—Experiments. 227

IV. _Development._

There is no medullary oil in infancy.—Proofs.—Experiments. 227

ARTICLE SECOND.

MEDULLARY SYSTEM OF THE MIDDLE OF THE LONG BONES.

I. _Conformation._

It is like the cellular. 229

II. _Organization._

The medullary membrane is not an expansion of the periosteum.—Its vessels. 230

III. _Properties._

Properties of texture.—Vital properties.—Animal sensibility.—Vitality more active than in the bones. 231

IV. _Development._

How the medullary membrane is formed.—The marrow of the infant is wholly different from that of the adult.—Proofs. 233

_Functions._—The marrow is exhaled.—Its alterations.—Its relations with the nutrition of the bone.—Necrosis.—The marrow is foreign to the synovia. 234

CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.

What must be understood by cartilage. 237

ARTICLE FIRST.

OF THE FORMS OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.

I. _Forms of the Cartilages of the Moveable Articulations._

Internal and external surfaces.—Relations of the two corresponding cartilages.—Peculiar characters of these cartilages in each kind of moveable articulations. 238

II. _Forms of the Cartilages of the Immoveable Articulations._ 241

III. _Forms of the Cartilages of the Cavities._ 242

ARTICLE SECOND.

ORGANIZATION OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.

I. _Texture peculiar to the Cartilaginous System._

Fibres.—Remarkable resistance of the cartilaginous texture to putrefaction, maceration, &c.—Stewing and desiccation of this texture.—Its various alterations. 243

II. _Parts common to the Organization of the Cartilaginous Texture._

Cellular texture.—Means of seeing it.—Absence of blood vessels.—White vessels.—Their colour in jaundice. 245

ARTICLE THIRD.

PROPERTIES OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.

I. _Physical Properties._

Elasticity.—It appears to be owing to the superabundance of gelatine.—Proofs. 247

II. _Properties of Texture._

They are very obscure. 248

III. _Vital Properties._

They are inconsiderable, as well as the sympathies. 249

_Character of the Vital Properties._—All the phenomena over which they preside have a chronic progress.—General observations upon the reunion of the parts. 250

ARTICLE FOURTH.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.

I. _State of the Cartilaginous System in the First Age._

Predominance of gelatine in the early periods.—Property which the cartilages then have of becoming red by maceration.—Vascular layers between the cartilage and the bone.—Cause which limits ossification in the cartilage.—Development of the cartilages of the cavities. 252

II. _State of the Cartilaginous System in the after Ages._

Different character which the gelatine assumes.—Ossification of the cartilages in old age.—Those of the cavities are the soonest ossified. 255

III. _Preternatural Development of the Cartilaginous System._

Tendency of the membrane of the spleen to become the seat of it.—Preternatural cartilages of the articulations. 257

FIBROUS SYSTEM.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

ARTICLE FIRST.

OF THE FORMS AND DIVISIONS OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM.

The fibrous forms are either membranous or in fasciæ. 259

I. _Of the Fibrous Organs of a Membranous Form._

Fibrous membranes.—Fibrous capsules.—Fibrous sheaths.—Aponeuroses. 260

II. _Of the Fibrous Organs in the form of Fasciæ._

1st. Tendons.—2d. Ligaments. 262

III. _Table of the Fibrous System._

Analogy of the different organs of this system.—The periosteum is the common centre of these organs. 262

ARTICLE SECOND.

ORGANIZATION OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM.

I. _Of the Texture peculiar to the Organization of the Fibrous System._

Peculiar nature of the fibrous texture.—Its extreme resistance.—Phenomena of this resistance.—It can be overcome.—Difference of the fibrous and muscular textures.—Experiments upon the fibrous texture subjected to maceration, ebullition, putrefaction, the action of the acids, the digestive juices, &c. 264

II. _Of the Common Parts which enter into the Organization of the Fibrous System._

Cellular texture.—Blood vessels.—Their varieties according to the organs. 270

ARTICLE THIRD.

PROPERTIES OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM.

I. _Physical Properties._

II. _Properties of Texture._

Extensibility.—Peculiar law to which it is subjected there. Contractility.—It is almost nothing.—When it is manifested. 272

III. _Vital Properties._

Animal sensibility.—Singular mode of putting it in action by distension.—Consequence of this peculiar phenomenon to the fibrous texture. 274

_Character of the vital properties._—The vital activity is more evident in this system than in the preceding.—It appears that the fibrous texture does not suppurate. 277

_Sympathies._—Examples of those of the animal and the organic properties. 279

ARTICLE FOURTH.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM.

I. _State of the Fibrous System in the First Age._

The fibres are wanting in most of the fibrous organs of the fœtus.—Softness of these organs at this age.—Varieties of development.—Remarks upon rheumatism. 281

II. _State of the Fibrous System in the After Ages._

Phenomena of the adult.—General stiffness in old age. 283

III. _Preternatural Development of the Fibrous System._ Various tumours exhibit fibres analogous to those of this system. 284

ARTICLE FIFTH.

OF THE FIBROUS MEMBRANES IN GENERAL.

I. _Forms of the Fibrous Membranes._

Their double surface.—These membranes are like moulds of their respective organs.—Researches respecting that of the corpus cavernosum.—Experiments which show that it differs essentially from the subjacent spongy texture.—Other researches upon that of the testicle. 285

II. _Organization of the Fibrous Membranes._ 288

III. _Of the Periosteum. Of its Form._

Its two surfaces.—Their adhesion to the bones. 289

_Organization of the periosteum._—Preternatural development of its fibres in elephantiasis.—Its connexions with the fibrous bodies in infancy. 291

_Development of the periosteum._

_Functions of the Periosteum._—In what way it assists ossification.—It relates as much to the fibrous organs as to the bones. 292

IV. _Perichondrium._

Experiments upon this membrane. 294

ARTICLE SIXTH.

OF THE FIBROUS CAPSULES.

I. _Forms of the Fibrous Capsules._

They are very few.—Arrangement of the two principal ones.—Canal between them and the synovial capsule. 295

II. _Functions of the Fibrous Capsules._ 296

ARTICLE SEVENTH.

OF THE FIBROUS SHEATHS.

Their division. 297

I. _Partial Fibrous Sheaths._

Their form.—Their arrangement.—Why the flexor tendons are alone provided with them. 297

II. _General Fibrous Sheaths._ 299

ARTICLE EIGHTH.