Part 33

The different phenomena which the hair, the epidermis, the skin, and in general all the external organs experience in the successive ages, are wholly owing, like those of the internal organs, to the laws of nutrition, and not to the action of surrounding bodies. This is an essential difference between organic and inorganic bodies. The latter are gradually altered in two ways by the contact of external bodies which act upon them, 1st, mechanically by friction, tearing, &c. &c.; 2d, chemically, by combining with them, as for example, the air whose different principles undergo many combinations which change its nature and that of the bodies with which it is in contact. In this respect all inorganic bodies grow old. At the end of some time, they have no longer the exterior which characterized them in the beginning. Observe monuments, pictures, engravings, earths, metals, stones, &c. &c. every thing which in the arts, commerce, sciences, in the uses of life or in the phenomena of nature is formed of any inert bodies, whether these bodies have never lived, or having lived, have not been able to preserve themselves after death, as the solid portions of vegetables, the bones, the horns, the hair of animals, &c. every thing finally has the indelible stamp of time; every thing grows old; every thing loses its freshness, every thing changes on the exterior of inert, as well as on that of organic bodies; but as in the first surrounding bodies alone have acted, the internal part is still young, whilst the external is old, if I may be allowed to use two very improper words. Thus the rock whose surface is blackened by the lapse of years, is the same in the interior as when it was created. On the contrary in animals and vegetables, the internal organs are worn out, as well as the exterior. Time is marked upon the viscera, as well as upon the forehead of the aged. Surrounding bodies act upon us, wear out life, if we may so say; but it is as stimuli that they exert their action; it is by exhausting the sensibility and contractility, and not by combination, mechanical contact or friction. Language ought to express this difference. We do not use the term _young_ when viewing the exterior of a new building, a new garment, or a picture recently painted; why do we say an _old_ monument, an _old_ piece of cloth, &c.? if it is a metaphor, very well; but this word cannot express a state analogous in its nature, to that of an old animal, an old plant, &c.

IV. _Preternatural Development._

There are three principal cases in which the hairs are preternaturally developed in the economy.

1st. Sometimes they are formed on the internal surface of the mucous membranes; they have been seen in the bladder, the stomach and the intestines; many authors have given cases of them. I have found them upon the calculi of the kidney. I have seen in the gall-bladder at one time a dozen of nearly an inch in length, and which were evidently implanted in its surface.

2d. There is often seen on the skin preternatural collections of them, which are usually a defect from birth. These collections are particularly observed upon some of those productions or irregular excrescences, that are called nævi materni. There was exhibited at Paris, six years since, an unfortunate person, who had from his birth his face covered with hairs almost like those of a wild boar; and to whom there came on at the age of thirty-six years, that particular species of elephantiasis, in which the skin of the face increased in size, exhibits, if we may so say, the features of the lion, a species which I have since had occasion to observe upon a natural skin. This double circumstance gave to the face of this man an air of ferocity which it is impossible to describe. Many of the stories circulated by the vulgar concerning men with the heads of wild boars, bears, &c. are nothing but these nævi in the face, with a growth of hair upon them.

3d. Hairs are often preternaturally developed in cysts, in those of the ovaria especially. A great many instances have been related. Haller in particular has collected many; I have seen two. The following is what they exhibit; a considerable large sac contained many very distinct small balls, analogous to those of the dung of sheep, formed by a fat, unctuous, whitish substance, very different in its appearance from ordinary fat. On the internal surface of this sac were implanted many hairs, which the least force could remove, because they hardly penetrated below the surface. These hairs were black. Many already detached were found crossed in different directions, in the small balls of fatty matter, which was like spermaceti; for it very much resembled the substance into which the fat is changed by maceration.

END OF THE LAST VOLUME.

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.

VOLUME FIRST. PAGE.

Preface by the Translator. 5

Preface by the Author. _ib._

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

Of Animate and Inanimate Beings.—Of their Laws.—Of the Sciences which treat of their Phenomena. 9

I. _General Remarks upon the Physiological and Physical Sciences._

The differences between these sciences are derived from the properties which preside over the phenomena.—The necessity of always connecting the second with the first.—Periods at which this progress commenced in the physical sciences. False applications made to the physiological sciences.—The necessity of following in these the same course as in the others. 9

II. _Of the Vital Properties, and their influence upon the phenomena of the Physiological and Physical Sciences._

Vital properties considered in the series of living beings.—Of those which animate plants.—Consequences in regard to their diseases.—Of those which belong to animals.—Consequences in regard to their diseases.—Examination of each vital property under the relation of the diseases over which it presides.—Necessity of referring to these properties the action of medicines.—Uncertainty of the Materia Medica.—Each vital property has a particular class of medicines which act upon it.—Proofs.—Inconveniences of describing morbid phenomena and those of medicines in too general a manner.—Consequences of the preceding remarks. 13

III. _Characters of the Vital Properties, compared with the characters of the Physical Properties._

Extreme variableness of the first, invariableness of the second.—Consequences of this principle as it regards the phenomena.—There can only be diseases where there are vital properties.—Why.—The progress of the physiological and physical sciences wholly different in this respect.—Differences between animate and inanimate solids and fluids.—The vital properties become exhausted, the physical do not.—Consequences.—The latter are inherent in matter, the others are not.—General remarks upon the enumeration of the differences of animate and inanimate bodies.—Particular remark relative to sympathies.—Their general phenomena. 23

IV. _Of the Vital Properties and their Phenomena considered in relation to the Solids and the Fluids._

Division of the fluids into those of composition and those of decomposition.—The vital properties are seated essentially in the solids.—These are the seat of almost all the morbid symptoms.—The fluids however may be affected.—Different attributes of the fluids of composition and of those of decomposition in diseases.—How the alterations of the first may take place.—Of those of the second.—Of the cases in which the solids and the fluids are primarily affected.—Division of diseases in this view.—The question must necessarily be considered in many points of view.—What is true on one side is not so on another.—Of the vitality of the fluids.—What it is.—Their alterations affect their vitality.—New proofs of these alterations.—How the fluids are assimilated and altered. 29

V. _Of the Properties Independent of Life._

Properties of texture.—Of contractility by the horny hardening.—Of the agents which put it into action.—It is of two kinds.—Characters of each.—Their differences.—Almost all the solids undergo the horny hardening.—Condition which it requires.—Of the horny hardening during life and after death.—Difference of this contractility from the others.—General remarks. 38

VI. _General Observations upon the Organization of Animals._

Of the simple systems.—Necessity of considering them abstractedly.—Their difference of forms.—Their variety of organization, 1st, in the peculiar texture; 2d, in the common parts.—Manner of knowing these differences.—Differences of the vital properties and of texture.—Of the peculiar life.—It cannot be understood of the compound organs, but of the simple systems.—Examples which prove this assertion in the different organs. 44

VII. _Consequences of the preceding Principles relative to Diseases._

Each texture can be separately affected in an organ.—This even almost always happens.—Various proofs of this assertion.—Observations upon different diseases.—Sympathies do not take place in an organ as a whole, but in some one texture of this organ.—Why.—Of sympathetic fevers.—The different inflammations vary in each texture.—Phenomena of the different kinds of virus variable from the same cause.—Yet the different textures of the same organ have a certain dependance upon each other.—Proofs.—Diseases chronic and acute.—Differences of diseases in each simple system.—Two classes of symptoms in the local affections.—Their difference.—Varieties of the pain, heat, &c. according to the systems.—What should be understood by acute and chronic affections in the simple systems.—Influence of these considerations upon morbid anatomy.—Defects of the old divisions.—New manner of considering morbid anatomy. 49

VIII. _Remarks upon the Classification of the Functions._

Table of this classification. 60

SYSTEMS COMMON TO ALL THE APPARATUS.

_General Observations._

Division of the systems.—Systems common to all the apparatus.—Their characters.—They form the nutritive parenchyma of the organs.—Remarks upon nutrition.—Diversity of the nutritive substances. 77

CELLULAR SYSTEM.

General Remarks.—Division. 87

ARTICLE FIRST.

OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE ORGANS.

I. _Of the Cellular System exterior to each Organ._

Division of the organs in relation to the neighbouring texture. 88

_Of the Cellular System which adheres only to one side of the organs._

_Sub-cutaneous cellular texture._—Arrangement of this texture, 1st, upon the median line; 2d, in the different regions of the body.—Varieties of density and laxity. Uses of the sub-cutaneous texture.—Its fluids. 88

_Sub-mucous cellular texture._—Difference of this texture from the preceding.—The density of that.—Consequences.

_Sub-serous cellular texture._—It is in general loose and abundant.—Why.—Place where it is dense. 92

_Cellular texture exterior to the arteries._—Its peculiar nature is analogous to that of the sub-mucous texture.—Its relations with the arterial fibres.

_Cellular texture exterior to the veins._—It is analogous to the preceding, only less thick.—Remarks.

_Cellular texture exterior to the excretory ducts._—The same structure and arrangement as in the preceding. 96

_Of the cellular system considered in relation to the organs that it surrounds on all sides._—Cellular atmosphere.—Fluids of this atmosphere.—Insulation of the vitality of the organs.—Of this atmosphere considered as a means for the propagation of diseases.—It favours the motion of the parts. 96

II. _Of the Internal Cellular System of each Organ._

Arrangement of this texture.—Its uses.—Its different proportions. 102

ARTICLE SECOND.

OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM CONSIDERED INDEPENDENTLY OF THE ORGANS.

I. _Of the Cellular System of the Head._

_Cellular texture of the cranium._—It is almost nothing within.—Its communications.—Consequences of these communications.—It is more abundant without.

_Cellular texture of the face._—It is very abundant.—Its uses.—Its communications, &c. 104

II. _Of the Cellular System of the Trunk._

_Vertebral cellular texture._—It is not abundant in the cavity of the canal.—On the exterior, there is but little behind, and more in front.—Consequences.

_Cervical cellular texture._—It is abundant.—Its communications.—Consequences.

_Pectoral cellular texture._—It is found especially upon the median line.—Its communications.—External texture.

_Abdominal cellular texture._—Of the parts in which it is most abundant.—Its communications.

_Cellular texture of the pelvis._—It is very abundant.—Why.—Consequences.—Its communications. 108

III. _Of the Cellular System of the Extremities._

Its different proportions in the superior and the inferior. 112

ARTICLE THIRD.

OF THE FORMS OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM, AND THE FLUIDS IT CONTAINS.

I. _Of the Cells._

Their form.—Their capacity.—Their communication.—-Experiments.—Of the cellular permeability.—In what sense it should be understood. 114

II. _Of the Serum of the Cellular Membrane._

Proof of its existence.—Its evaporation.—It varies in the different regions.—Method of ascertaining the proportions of it.—Experiments.—Nature of this fluid.—Experiments. 117

III. _Of the Cellular Fat._

_Natural proportions of the fat._—Varieties of its proportions according to the regions, organs, systems, &c—Its peculiar arrangement in childhood.—Varieties according to the other ages. 119

_Unnatural proportions of fat._—Its preternatural abundance indicates weakness.—Different proofs.—Of the causes of the diminution of fat.—Remark upon this diminution. 121

_Different states of the fat._—Its degree of fluidity is not during life in proportion to temperature.—Its consistence in young animals.—Consequences.—Its alterations by age, diseases, &c. 125

_Exhalation of fat._—Different opinions.—The fat is exhaled.—Proofs.—Nature of this fluid.—Relation of its uses with the places where it exists and with those in which it is wanting. 127

ARTICLE FOURTH.

ORGANIZATION OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM.

I. _Texture peculiar to the organization of the Cellular System._

Filaments and layers from which it results.—Method of seeing them to advantage.—Their nature.—Essential difference in the cellular organization.—There are two species of cellular texture. 129

_Composition of the cellular texture._—Experiments upon this texture.—Action of the air, water, caloric and the gastric juices.—Experiments.—Of the gases sometimes extricated in the cellular texture. 132

II. _Parts common to the Organization of the Cellular Texture._

_Blood vessels._—The inaccuracy of injections in demonstrating them.

_Exhalants._—Of the cellular exhalations.—Proofs and phenomena of these exhalations.

_Absorbents._—Cellular absorptions.—Proofs.—The cellular texture is not wholly formed of absorbents.

_Nerves._ 136

ARTICLE FIFTH.

PROPERTIES OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM.

I. _Properties of Texture._

_Extensibility._—Examples of the different distensions.—Distinctive character of the cellular extensibility.—Its phenomena.—It becomes nothing in inflammation, chronic engorgements, &c.

_Contractility._—Different examples of this property brought into action.—Its varieties according to the ages.—General remarks. 140

II. _Vital Properties._

The animal ones are inconsiderable.—The organic are greater, except sensible contractility, which however exists to a certain extent.

_Sympathies._—It is necessary to distinguish them from the phenomena of juxta-position.—Various examples.—General observations.—Vital properties put in action by the sympathies.

_Character of the vital properties._—The vital activity is very considerable in the cellular texture.—Various proofs.—Remarks upon the species.—Difference of vitality in the two species of cellular texture. 143

III. _Properties of Reproduction._

_Influence of the cellular texture upon the formation of cicatrices._—Division of the periods of the cicatrices.

_First period._—Inflammation.—How it takes place.—Its advantages.

_Second period._—Fleshy granulations.—Experiments.—Provisional membrane of the cicatrices.—Its uses.—General phenomena of the internal cicatrices.—Cellular nature of this membrane and of the granulations.—Different opinions.

_Third period._—Suppuration.—What corresponds to it in the internal cicatrices.—Analogy of these cicatrices with the external.

_Fourth period._—Contraction of the fleshy granulations.—Adhesions.—Consequences of the preceding principles.—Of union by the first intention. 148

_Influence of the cellular texture in the formation of tumours._—Cellular nature of all tumours which grow and increase.—Proofs.—Mode of development of these tumours.—How they differ from various engorgements, acute and chronic. 157

_Influence of the cellular texture in the formation of cysts._—What is a cyst.—Its analogy with the serous surfaces.—Its cellular structure.—Mode of its development. 160

ARTICLE SIXTH.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CELLULAR TEXTURE.

I. _State of the Cellular System in the First Age._

Mucous mass represented by the cellular texture of the fœtus.—Superabundance of fluid.—This is then the cellular fluid.—Difficulty of emphysema in the fœtus.—State of the cellular texture in infancy and youth.—Its vital energy.—Consequences. 164

II. _State of the Cellular System in the After Ages._

Arrangement of the cellular texture in the adult.—Differences arising from sex.—Degeneracy of this texture in old age.—Withering that it experiences.—Consequences. 167

NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.

Division of the nerves into two systems.—Differences of these two systems.—General arrangement of that of animal life.—Its symmetry.—Relation of size between the nerves and the brain. 169

ARTICLE FIRST.

EXTERNAL FORMS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.

I. _Origin of the Cerebral Nerves._

In what sense this origin must be understood.—It takes place, 1st, in the brain; 2d, in the tuber annulare and its dependancies; 3d, in the spinal marrow.—Manner of this triple origin.—Of the crossing of the nerves.—Phenomena of paralysis in regard to this.—Peculiar arrangement of the cerebral membranes at the origin of the nerves.—Extent, direction and form of the nerves at this origin. 171

II. _Course of the Cerebral Nerves._

_Communications of the cerebral nerves at their exit from their osseous cavity._—There are none between the nerves of the brain properly called.—The communications begin in those of the tuber annulare.—They are very numerous in those of the spinal marrow.—Arrangement of the plexuses which result from them.—Consequences as it regards descriptive neurology.

_Internal communications of the nervous cords._—Manner of these communications.—Internal plexus to each nerve.—Consequences.—Difference from anastomoses.

_Nervous Trunks._—Their course.—Their form.—Their length, &c.

_Nervous branches, smaller branches, ramifications, &c._—Mode of origin.—Length.—Course, &c. 176

III. _Termination of the Nerves._

What is to be understood by it.—Triple mode of termination.

_Anastomoses with the same system._—What is to be understood by anastomoses.—They are rare in this system.—They can be referred to three classes.

_Anastomoses with the system of organic life.—Termination in the organs._—Manner of this termination.—Division of the organs in this respect. 182

ARTICLE SECOND.

ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.

I. _Texture peculiar to this Organization._

Arrangement of the nervous cords.—Their varieties.—Each nerve has its peculiar organization.—Of the structure of the nervous filaments.

_Of the nervous coat and its origin._—How this origin may be seen.—Its triple arrangement at the brain, the tuber annulare and the spinal marrow.—Particular arrangement of the optic nerve.—Remarks upon the pia mater.—Course of the nervous coat. 185

_Action of certain substances upon the nervous coat; its resistance, &c._—Action of the acids, water, caloric, and the alkalies.—Resistance of the nervous coat.

_Medullary substance_; its origin, arrangement and proportions.

_Comparison between the medullary substance of the brain and the nerves._—Effect of desiccation upon each.—Putrefaction and its phenomena.—Absence of the horny hardening in both.—Action of water upon both.—Action of the acids, the alkalies, neutral salts and the digestive juices.—Difference of the nervous pulp in each part. 190

II. _Parts common to the Organization of the Nervous System of Animal Life._

_Cellular texture._—It is wanting in the nerves, in the cranium and the spine. Elsewhere it is found between their filaments and cords.—Cellular fat.

_Blood vessels._—Their arrangement.—Remarks upon the veins.—Of the blood.—Of the nerves.—Action of this fluid upon them.

_Exhalants and Absorbents._—Examination of the opinion upon the exhalation of the nervous coat.—Different observations.

_Nerves._ 199

ARTICLE THIRD.

PROPERTIES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE.

I. _Properties of Texture._

They are but very slightly marked.—Remarks upon the nervous distensions. 204

II. _Vital Properties.—Properties of Animal Life._

_Animal sensibility inherent in the nerves._—Various experiments upon this sensibility.—Remarks upon that of the brain.—Phenomena of the experiments upon the nerves.—Character of the animal nervous sensibility. —Of neuralgias.—Another character of this sensibility.—Experiments.—Consequences. 206

_Influence of the nerves upon the animal sensibility of all the organs._—Distinction of the sensations, in this respect, into external and internal.—Subdivision of the external into general and particular.—Part which the nerves perform in each.—Internal sensations.—Uncertainty respecting the nervous influence in sensations.—Differences between animal sensibility and contractility.—Of the nervous atmosphere.—Uncertainty of this opinion. 211

_Animal contractility.—Influence of the nerves upon that of the other parts._—How the nerves are the agents of this property.—Different opinions upon the action of the nerves.—Uncertainty of these opinions.—General observations.

_Properties of organic life, considered in the nerves._—They are slightly marked.—Increase of the size of the nerves in the affections of some parts.—Various experiments and observations.