Chapter 3

Mr. Myron T. Scudder, in his practical and stimulating pamphlet on games for country children (_Country Play; A Field Day and Play Picnic for Country Children_. Pub. by _Charities_, N.Y.), points out a very real factor in the failure of American country life to hold its young people when he cites the lack of stimulation, organization, and guidance for the play activities of the young. It is a mistaken idea that country children and youths have through the spaciousness of environment alone all that they need of play. Organization and guidance are often needed more than for the city children whose instincts for social combination are more acute.

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ORIGINS.--One may not close even a brief sketch of games and their uses without reference to the topic of origins. This has been studied chiefly from two different viewpoints, that of ethnology, in which the work of Mr. Stewart Culin is preëminent, and that of folklore, in which in English Mrs. Gomme and Mr. Newell have done the most extensive work. Both of these modes of study lead to the conclusion that the great mass of games originated in the childhood of the race as serious religious or divinitory rites. Indeed, many are so used among primitive peoples to-day. Very few games are of modern invention, though the development of many to the high point of organization and skill in which we know them is very recent. Basket Ball was a deliberate invention, by Dr. James Naismith, then of Springfield, Mass., in 1892; Base Ball and Tennis, as we know them, were developed during the last half century from earlier and simpler forms; Indoor Base Ball was devised by Mr. George W. Hancock, of Chicago, in 1887; Battle Ball and Curtain Ball, both popular gymnasium games, were devised by Dr. Dudley Allen Sargent, of Harvard University.

In ethnology the study of the origin and distribution of games "furnishes," says Mr. Culin, "the most perfect existing evidence of the underlying foundation of mythic concepts upon which so much of the fabric of our culture is built." The most scientific work on the entire subject of games lies in this direction. As revealed by board and other implement games the element of sport does not originally inhere in a game, the procedure being a rite of magic or religion, pursued mainly as a means of divination. In Mr. Culin's opinion, "the plays of children must be regarded apart from games, being dramatic and imitative, although copying games as they [the children] copy other affairs of life, and thus often preserving remains of ceremonials of remote antiquity."

From the folklore viewpoint Mrs. Gomme and Mr. Newell have brought to bear on games a wealth of knowledge of old customs and beliefs, discerning thereby a significance that might otherwise pass unnoticed and unappreciated. Thus we have the recognition of old well-worship rites in the little singing game "Draw a Bucket of Water"; of ancient house ritual in some of the dramatic games; in others the propitiation of deities that preside over the fertility of the fields; survivals of border warfare; of old courtship and marriage observances, and many other rites and customs. Sometimes this recognition is merely one of analogy or association, leading to a surmise of the origin of a game; sometimes it is supported by old records and drawings or references found in early literature. While often not so exact as the strictly scientific method, this folklore study throws a flood of light on the heritage of games that passes from child to child, giving to the subject added dignity and worth. One comes to appreciate that the childhood bereft of this heritage has lost a pleasure that is its natural right, as it would if brought up in ignorance of Jack the Giant Killer, Beauty and the Beast, or Robinson Crusoe.

The class of games studied by the folklorists mentioned includes mainly those of active and dramatic character as distinguished from the board and implement games. Mrs. Gomme sees in their form, method of playing, the dialogue often included, and the fact of their continuance from generation to generation, an expression of the dramatic instinct, and considers them a valuable adjunct in the study of the beginnings of the drama. The student of games must find of great interest Mrs. Gomme's classification by formation, the line form being considered to represent, or to have grown out of, a contest between people from different countries or localities; the circle formation a representation of customs prevailing in one village, town, or tribe, and so on, with the arch form or tug of war, the winding-up games (as in Snail), etc.

Viewed in this light of their origin, games are especially fascinating. They take one back to the atmosphere that pervades romance: to quaint chronicles of kings and courtiers setting forth in brilliant train for some game that is the heritage of the child of to-day; to ladies-in-waiting on the Queen playing Babylon; to shepherds congregating on the moors, or early village communities dividing, over some forerunner of our college Football; to village lads and lasses dodging through the cornstalks with Barley Break, or milkmaids playing Stool Ball with their stools. For while it is rightly said that the serious occupations of adults at one period become the games of children at another, the statement omits an intermediate fact that strongly impresses the student of games: namely, that these activities, which at first were serious rites have been used for sport by adults themselves before being handed down to children; as though the grown folk should masquerade for a time in their outworn garments before passing them on to following generations. Considering the varied interests that find expression in these games, one is further impressed with the fact that humanity passes thus in review its entire range of experience, transmuting into material for sport the circumstances of love and hatred, sorrow and rejoicing, fear and veneration. Nothing is too exalted or humble, too solemn or fearsome, to be the subject of these frolic events. Nature in all her panoply is here in dramatized form or reference--earth, stone, fire, and water; verdure and the kingdom of living things from beast to man; the seasons and the planets. Industry, love and war, fiends and deities, death itself and the hereafter, all pass in review, for one who sees the hidden significance, like a panorama of existence, as they passed, a plaything and a jest, before the gods of Olympus. It would seem as though humanity, viewing in long perspective its own experiences, had found them all at last fit subjects to

"Beget the smiles that have no cruelty."

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One dares to hope that this little craft, bearing as it does such a freight of gladness, may leave behind a wake of cheer, and laughter, and happiness.

JESSIE H. BANCROFT.

MARCH, 1909.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Detailed acknowledgment is made throughout the volume to various authors and publishers. A general assurance of most grateful appreciation is here tendered to many who have responded with material and suggestions in the research, and to the numerous teachers whose resourcefulness has led to the adaptation of many games to school conditions. The author regrets the impracticability of mentioning all of these by name.

Especial acknowledgment is due Mrs. Marie Talbot Constant for most valuable and varied assistance, particularly in bibliographical research and cataloguing of games; and to Miss Lilian M. McConville for testing and adapting many foreign games collected for the present volume.

TO THE TEACHER OF GAMES

The following suggestions are made with a view to the use of games under any circumstances, though many of them apply especially to large numbers of players under the guidance of a teacher or leader, as in playgrounds and schools.

The leader or teacher of a playground should approach his or her work largely in the spirit of the host or hostess whose duty it is to see that each individual guest is happy and has opportunity to share all of the pleasures of the occasion. But much more than this is involved in the relation of teacher and pupil. The teacher of games, or leader of children's play, needs, like all teachers, to have a sympathetic personal understanding of the players; a quick insight into character and motive; a knowledge of what to look for in the child's development at different periods, as indicated in the Introduction; and to be, in short, guide, philosopher, and friend.

The teacher should never hesitate, from questions of personal dignity, to participate in the play of children. Nothing can more quickly gain the respect and affection of a child than such participation. Every adult can doubtless recall the extreme pleasure experienced in childhood when some grown person entered into the childish play. In schools, where there is necessarily so much of formal discipline and dealing with large numbers _en masse_, one of the most valuable effects of games is to produce a more natural and sympathetic relationship between teacher and pupil, and a fuller appreciation on the part of the teacher of child nature. This effect from the use of games has been noted by scores of teachers, even those who were at first opposed to such use.

Every teacher will have his or her individual methods for teaching, discipline, and management of games. The following general suggestions, however, are the result of experience, and may be of assistance to the novice, at least.

[Sidenote: How to teach a game]

The best method of teaching a game is to make a full explanation of it before the pupils take their places to play. If this be in a schoolroom, illustrative diagrams may often be drawn on the blackboard, and it is sometimes helpful, there or elsewhere, to have a few pupils go slowly (not running) through the general form of the game, to illustrate it to the others. In a playground the same method may be used by having the players sit, if that be feasible, or by halting them in a march or after gymnastic exercises, to listen to the explanation. Never try to teach and play a game at the same time. The only exception to this rule should be where there is a large and disorderly crowd with which to deal. Then it may occasionally be best to start a game to gain interest and attention, and then halt for further explanation.

[Sidenote: Class and group games]

It often becomes necessary for the sake of discipline and unity to unite all of the players in a playground in one game. Comparatively few games, however, are successful when played by very large numbers. A special index has been prepared of such games, however, and will be found at the end of the present volume. Classes may often be brought into order and attention in a playground by the simple device of marching, the march to end in one game for all of the players, or several games in groups.

An indication that too many players are taking part in a game is almost invariably to be found in a lack of interest on the part of the players, arising usually from the infrequency with which each player gets an opportunity to participate. The ultimate test of any game, however, from the recreative standpoint must be one of interest, and this is often found among players who are not participating in the action if competition be close. A teacher should watch closely for waning interest, and may often save the situation by dividing the players into two or more groups. Many games that are commonly listed for as many as sixty players are given in the present index as useful for "thirty or more." By this is meant that the best playing values of the game are lost when played by more than thirty, although it is possible to use the game with a larger number. Very frequently even these games are far better played by smaller groups.

A resourceful teacher will find many ways of adapting games to large numbers. Among such devices may be mentioned (1) increasing the number of runners and chasers; for instance, in the game of Cat and Rat, there may be several cats and several rats; (2) in the circle games of simple character, especially the singing games, the circle may be duplicated, thus having two concentric circles, one within the other; (3) in many ball games it will be found possible to put more than one ball in play, as in Bombardment or Circle Club Bowls. Such suggestions as this are often made in the present volume in connection with the description of the games.

Group play, by which is meant the division of a large number of players into smaller squads or groups, is undoubtedly the best method for getting the best sport and the greatest playing values out of most games. Such a division of players is not always an easy matter to inaugurate, untrained players being inclined to follow the teacher from point to point in the playground. This may be obviated by appointing group leaders, each of whom should understand the game to be played and be appointed to take charge of it. Older children, and almost invariably the children who are disorderly or inclined to disturb the general harmony and discipline of the playground, are the best ones to charge with such responsibility. This method serves the double purpose of quelling their disorderly propensities by occupying them in a position of responsibility, and takes care of a group of players at the same time. When the group method is used in schools, it is advisable to appoint the leaders of the groups, or allow the children to elect them, before leaving the class room for the playground.

[Sidenote: Choice of games]

The choice of games to be played should be left to a vote or suggestion of the players. The teacher's function in this regard is to suggest, not to dictate. In schools this choice may generally best be made in the class room, before a class goes to the playground.

A teacher should be ready with suggestions for new games or occupation of some sort when interest wanes in a game that is being played; but a new game should not be suggested until there is evidence that players are tired of the old one. Do not make the mistake of thinking that children want to play games incessantly during a half-day session of a playground. Children like quiet pursuits occasionally as well as do adults, and it is well to alternate games with such quiet periods and also with marching, gymnastics, folk dancing, or periods of free activity. So-called quiet games will be found useful under such circumstances.

[Sidenote: Discipline]

Each playground leader or teacher should be provided with a whistle. This saves a great deal of strain on the voice, and should be understood from the outset to command instant quiet, all play to be suspended when it is heard. The most joyous play goes always with the best discipline. Both children and adult players like strength and decision in a teacher or leader. Indeed, they instinctively place themselves under the leadership of the decided and dominant characters among themselves. It has been the experience of the author that discipline in schools is greatly helped by the playing of games, partly because the privilege of play or its loss is one of the strongest incentives to order at other times, but also because of the happy outlet afforded for normal tendencies and the disciplinary training of the games themselves.

[Sidenote: Playing values]

Get the playing values out of games. By this is meant, see that every child gets as much opportunity as possible for participation in the actual physical exercise of the game and in all the phases of play that make him a successful, alert, resourceful player. The result of this and the test of it will be the amount of interest and sport in the games. _Do not make the games too serious. Get laughter and frolic out of them._

Encourage timid pupils to give dares and to take risks. No class of players needs more sympathetic or tactful understanding and help from a teacher than the timid. Such children often suffer greatly through their shyness. They should first be brought into play in some form of game that does not make them conspicuous; one, for instance, in which they do what all the other players do, or merely take turns. Such children should be encouraged by praise of their successful efforts, and especial care should be taken not to call attention to their failures.

See that the selfish or most capable children do not have the lion's share of the play; the opportunities should be equally distributed. It is often necessary for a teacher to distinguish between self-assertiveness, which is a natural phase of the development of the sense of individuality, or selfishness and "bullying," which are exaggerated forms of the same tendency. Both may need repression and guidance, but only the latter are reprehensible.

Encourage each pupil to be alert to see when it is his turn and to be quick in play. Every game should be a sense-training game, developing power for quick perception of external stimuli and quick and expert reaction to such stimuli.

In chasing games, encourage interesting chases, the runner to take unexpected turns and dodges, making capture difficult. The shortest distance between two points for a chase often makes a dull game, devoid of sport.

Young players will need to be helped to use reason and judgment in games, as to when to run risks of capture, how to attack the opponent's weakest point, etc.

Do not treat children as though they were made of glass and fear to see them tumble down. Every child, boy or girl, ought to be able to bear a few falls, knocks, and bruises. This is nature's way of training a child to be more observant or agile. Besides, physical hardihood is one of the best possible results from the playing of games. Do not coddle a child who has received an injury. Cultivate a stoic spirit. If it be a slight injury, have the child go on with his play and he will soon forget it. If it require treatment of any sort, take the player at once away from the playground or vicinity of the other players and apply first-aid remedies until medical assistance can be obtained.

[Sidenote: Team play]

Team play is one of the highest forms of play. The teacher should look for the beginning of the tendency toward it as shown in a fondness for the play of opposing groups, manifest from ten to twelve years of age. This tendency should be encouraged and developed into more closely organized types of team games. The greatest value of team play lies in the coöperation of the players, all working together for a common end, a player's thought and effort being to do what is best for his team rather than to use his skill for individual glory.

[Sidenote: Enforcement of rules]

The number and difficulty of rules and regulations governing a game go through a steady increase as children grow older. The games for very little children have practically no rules except the following of turns in rotation. Later come such games as those in which a player's turn comes only on a given signal, and it is a foul to start before this signal, as in relay races. Many other types of rules appear as the games progress. These reach their culmination in ball games where, amid the excitement of a game, a player must exercise heedfulness and restraint in the method of playing upon a ball, the range of movement allowed from a given base, and many other points.

A teacher should understand clearly that the inhibitive power of the will necessary for the observation of rules is a slow and late development, and that its training by means of rules is one of the most important educational features in the use of games. (See Introduction.) Players should therefore not be expected to take part in a game that is much beyond their power in this regard. A teacher should not announce a rule unless sure that it is reasonable to expect the players to observe it. Having announced a rule, however, enforce it to the full extent. To condone the infringement of a rule is equivalent to a lie in its injury to the moral nature of a player. It is a weak-willed teacher who does not enforce rules. Players will respect far more a strict disciplinarian than a weak one. Every player who infringes a rule should suffer the full penalty therefor. Only by such means can there be trained the strength of will to avoid such infringement in the future, for it should be repeated that such infringements are not always the result of intentional cheating. They indicate very often an undeveloped power of will, and the teacher should be able to discriminate between the sneaking cowardice that would win unfairly and mere lack of power. Both causes, however, should lead to the same result of suffering the full penalty for any infringement of rules.

[Sidenote: Honor]

Teach players to play to win--with all their might. But with this cultivate a sense of honor. Have them realize that any victory not earned strictly by their own merits or those of their team is a disgrace rather than a cause for congratulation. No better opportunity can ever be found for inculcating the knowledge that to be trusted is far greater than to be praised. A player should scorn rewards not based on merit, and should be led to feel that a defeat resulting from an honest trial of strength is an honorable defeat; that the real issue is as much concerned with the amount of effort put forth as with the comparative results of it measured with some other player. A defeated player should be led to recognize and do honor to the prowess of his adversary, and so to congratulate him honestly. A sense of superior power should never degenerate into gloating over a defeated adversary or into contempt for his weaker ability. Many thrilling examples of honest mutual admiration between victor and vanquished may be gleaned from the history of warfare, as when Grant handed back the sword of surrender to Lee.

In athletic games players should learn that to question or dispute the decision of judges or other officials presiding over games is thoroughly unsportsmanlike and a species of dishonor. Having once placed themselves under officials, decisions must be accepted without cavil at the time. The natural desire to learn how a decision was reached in an athletic event must be held in check until the judges have opportunity to announce fouls or other features of scoring that determine the result. It should always be borne in mind, by both players and coaches, that the officials, who are each concentrating on some one feature of the play, know what happens far more accurately than the general observer. It is also thoroughly unsportsmanlike, and counts as a foul, disqualifying a player, if he receive directions or coaching of any sort from an instructor during a game.

FLOOR FORMATION.--The terms "formation" and "floor formation" are commonly used to designate the placing of players in the playground and gymnasium in the lines, circles, groups, or opposing sides, necessary for the starting of a game. To accomplish this disposition of the players quickly and without confusion requires a clear knowledge of methods on the part of the teacher. Some methods are here offered, but before giving them in detail a word should be said of the differing psychological effects of the various formations.