Part 2

It is generally conceived that Japanese do not lay much stress on individual rights. This is well understood from the utter lack of privacy of rooms. We can notice it specially in hotels under pure native plan. Privacy of a room as I said is not well observed by the average Japanese, notwithstanding much attention has been paid to that in the form of etiquette by the higher class of people, though the planning and construction of Japanese houses make it inconvenient to enforce it. “Privacy”, said the authors of “The Decoration of Houses”, “would seem to be one of the first requisites of civilized life, yet it is only necessary to observe the planning and arrangement of the average house to see how little this need is recognized. Each room in a house has its individual uses: some are made to sleep in, others are for dressing, eating, study, or conversation; but whatever the uses of a room, they are seriously interfered with if it be not preserved as a small world by itself”. The authors do not recognize that privacy has been well observed even in European houses. How far this was observed in our houses needs to be considered.

In a word we should build houses for the appearance sake so far as architectural aspect is concerned, and as to the interior the privacy should never be lost sight of. Our houses run from one extreme to the other; unless they are kept strictly secluded by walling the house lot by tall fences they are so widely open that one can see at a glance from one corner of a house. We frequently notice it among the lower classes of people. Fences are walls in Japanese houses; if they be taken away a house stands naked or defenceless. How the nakedness of a house exerts an influence upon the moral effect of inhabitants of the house, we can tell it at once by their indifference to the individual right, and their rude demeanor to the general public.

Vicissitude of the mode of living represents the alteration of the custom of a country, and the latter is the result of the change of a mental taste of the people forming a majority of a nation. In this time of transition a considerable change in mental taste has occurred and many a rite of old has been rooted out since the revolution of 1867. The houses in feudal times were chiefly planned to comply with the mode of living of aristocracy or fashioned after the spirit of _Samurai_ class. (The martial class). The “_Shinden-tsukuri_” (living-palace-type) or “_Adzumaya_” of more than one thousand years ago was a nature of pure aristocracy; indulgence in gratification of a pleasure being the predominant object of its plan. The whole group of buildings was like a summer house in modern sense. On the other hand, “_Shoin-tsukuri_” (Study room-type) was a type which well represents the spirit of _Samurai_, and it became undoubtedly the prototype of modern Japanese dwelling houses.

To turn our attention for a while to an immaterial side of Japanese domestic architecture noticing how it had been subjected under the spiritual influence which at least in Japanese houses is efficaciously influenced by other elements like religion, climate, and foreign country, I deem it not quite amiss in this theme.

_Samurai_ class, the heart of the citizen represented the nature and characteristic of all Japanese. Beside this there were agriculturists, mechanics, and merchants forming four classes of Japanese society. May it be understood that the social classes of Japan was not so severely divided as Hindoo castes intermarriage between classes being comparatively free, and occupations not necessarily descended rigidly from father to son. Although these classes had been withdrawn from society since the political revolution of 1867, still the spirit remains. It may be interesting to note how this spirit is expressed in our domestic architecture; _Samurai_ likes to dignify himself and rule his retainers accordingly; so the house has a ridiculously large gate and occupies exceedingly vast area in its plan. _Samurai_ observes the propriety of etiquette in the highest degree as he thinks it a most important factor of a social decorum; for that reason, even though there is no proper partition in the house etiquette works like a strong wall. _Samurai_ will be regarded as mean if he displays his possession like an exhibition, he intends it to be recognized that his mind is as clean and simple as clean water is in spite of having much valuable contents within; so in his parlor nothing is to be seen as decoration but “_kakemono_” (paper or silk hanging scrolls on which there may be paintings by eminent artists or ideograms of famous personages) flower vase, if any, in “_Tokonoma_”, and a few valuable articles on “_Chigai-tana_”, and perhaps one or two “_gaku_” (painting or ideogram in a frame) over a lintel of “_Shōji_” or “_Fusuma_”. These are all that we can find in the parlor while hundreds or thousands, if he is wealthy enough, of these descriptions are stored in “_Kura_”. (a detached store room of half fire-resisting construction) _Samurai_ thinks it a greatest honor to keep his family name among the martialhood as long as he can. He feels the greatest disdain or shame if his family name is discarded from a list of martialhood by any silly conduct, which can be redeemed only by death. This naturally inspires him with reverence of forefathers who had handed down the stainless family to his reign. Hence we see in many plans of houses of respectable _Samurai_ a room preserved for images of forefathers. This is not only found in the house of class but in all classes of citizens and this for the most part may be ascribed to the effect of Buddhism and Shintoism, the national religions of Japan. _Samurai_, however is rather indifferent in regard to religious matters in comparison with other classes of society; though the spirit of honor or something like chivalric idea of middle ages in Europe was heightened to the utmost. As to the idea or conception of _Samurai_ Professor Inazo Nitobē in his recent work “Bushido, the soul of Japan” treats it in full detail, my conception on the same may not precisely conform with Professor Nitobē, still I believe there may not be a great contradiction between us. On the whole in the feudal system of a government the relation of a _Daimio_ or a leader of _Samurai_ to the latter is well manifested in a like feature in the relation between _Samurai_ and his retainers. The shadow of feudal systems is cast in everywhere in social life and even the planning and construction of a house is greatly modified by it.

It is curious to note that so called American balloon frame construction represents the idea of Americanism, the democracy, each member having no special office particularly assigned to it, yet stands firmly by joint strain. I do not for a moment deduce that a system or a form of government has any direct connection to the construction of a house; but it modifies greatly in the planning of a house for the reason that a plan of a house evolves a national idea. This is well illustrated by the plan of both American and Japanese dwelling houses. Is it not also strange to observe that by studying the construction of our peasant’s house which has a middle, main post called a “_Daikoku-bashira_” (“_Daikoku_” is a name of god of wealth, “_hashira_” or “_bashira_” for euphony means a post or column) to which all structural stability is concentrated? A construction well suited to the aristocratic form of state only having no king post or queen post; but have “_Daikoku-bashira_”! When aristocracy in connection with feudal system was the form of government the family life of _Daimio_ was simply a smaller type of it and _Samurai_ and other wealthy families were still smaller of types of government; thus the house plan was made to conform with their traits. The fact that the form of government of a state modifies the architecture of the dwelling house is also exemplified by the house of England and France of the sixteenth century. Indeed, most of our houses of today were chiefly modeled after the prototype of former _Samurai_ houses. Now the spirits of commonwealth and liberty pervade all through the country; _daishō_ (long and short swords borne by _Samurai_) were thrown away, _mage_ (hair tied up at the top of a head. The old custom of Japan) was cut off, even the clothing was partly changed and yet we are faithfully following a mode of living which is half obsolete. Japan is in the state of transition from old to new from destruction to upheaval in architecture and in every thing. Cannot we hope to create a new design unless the old had been destroyed?

The houses as any other objects of utility should be improved by keeping abreast with the advancement of science. The house as a thing which has a money value and useful object to contain human beings, is not different from the railroad train and the steam boat. While a marked progress in these is being noticed from time to time what have we done for the house? We have shown a certain improvement in aspect by adopting European architectural style in house design, but a very little alteration has been done in its plan. What improvement have we accomplished toward its construction, materials, decoration, and workmanship? Besides the use of glass in “_shōji_”, iron and zinc plates in roof and gutter, what else have we used but ordinary building materials which have been handed down from time immemorial? What is the difference between our houses and those of our ancestors in aspect, construction, materials, and workmanship?

The history of Japanese dwelling houses is a subject not well studied by any architect or man of literature. Though much light has been thrown on the history of Japanese religious architecture by Professor Itō of the Imperial university of Tokyo, we can infer very little from him as to how our dwelling houses were in the past. Religious buildings and palaces form an important element in the history of architecture in all nations, and Japan is no exception. But it is not the aim of this theme to give a historical sketch of Japanese architecture from its earliest time, the object being only to show here the stage of development of our houses and thus I mean to infer that an important change should take place in the future.

The history of Japan dates as far back as six hundred sixty years before the Christian era. Before this date we call it the legendary era. According to the decree of administrative court of _Shinki_ it says “in our legendary era the people were primitive, living in caves in winter and nestling on trees in summer”, we can imagine from this that in earliest time we were cave dwellers in winter and tree nestlers in summer like natives of New Guinea of the present time. In time of Jimmu the founder of the Japanese Empire (660 B.C.) the houses developed in wooden type and henceforth wood became the only building material. Early Japanese houses had no decoration whatever and it seems to me that since 190 A.D. when Coreans brought some coloring pigments as tribute to the government of Jingo-Kōgō the painting was applied for the first time to the building, but it is certain that the color was applied only to the palace not to the “_Yashiro_” (_Shintō_ temple) nor to the dwelling houses. The dwelling houses. The dwelling houses were much improved in the time of Shōmu, (767 A.D.) the zenith of religious architecture. It was then that tiles were used for the first time as the roof covering in common dwelling houses which before that time were mostly covered by the bark of _hinoki_. (_Thuya Obtusa_, _Benth_) In common houses tiles were not yet used so abundantly as in temple roofs; they were used on the ridge only; the rest being covered by barks of wood. The plastered wall was also introduced at this time. It may, however, be remembered that that plaster consisted of lime and sand. Perhaps having some mud in the mixture; no gypsum was in use as in European plaster.

The ages between eighth and twelfth centuries, which includes a little more than three hundred and eighty years, when the Fujiwara family played an important role in the government formed a most prominent epoch of art and literature in the history of Japan. The long, peaceful reign generally ensues an effeminate tendency to the spirit of a nation especially to the nobility who had every facility to possess every thing at call. The result is the production of “_Azumaya_” or “_Shinden-tsukuri_”. The plan of which is by no means a desirable type of residence even for a nobility of today. But, to be sure, it served the requirement of the day in which the higher class of people indulged mostly in music and poetry, festival and pleasure. The plan of the _Shinden_ type reminds me of the notable building the “_Hō-oh-dō_” which was built at this time that is some eight hundred years ago in Yamashiro and which still remains in this day in the same spot after long defacing action of nature. It had the honor of being reproduced in Jackson Park at Chicago in 1893 as a representation of Japanese architecture.

The plan of “_Shinden-tukuri_” consists of a main or middle building flanked with two wings or detached rooms on the east and west connected by porches. The size of the main building was generally 70 feet square, sometimes as large as 120 feet square and even as small as 50 feet square according to circumstances. The interior of the building consists of a main middle room surrounded by a wide corridor laid with mats, reception room, store room etc. being arranged in this corridor each room divided by curtains. The east and west wings were used as living rooms, and perhaps the kitchen was in a detached house. It is imagined from the arrangement of rooms that the house was not planned merely for the purpose of pleasure. The ninth century of Christian era which corresponds to Tun dynasty of China was a great era for introducing art and literature from China through the hands of Buddhist preachers who had been sent by the government to observe the civilization of China; Kōbō-daishi and Saicho were most influential persons among scholars and religionists of the time. They returned home from their mission abroad well laden with the knowledge of art and literature which had been scattered all through the empire. The palace was planned on the largest scale ever carried on after the plan of a Chinese palace. The “_Shinden-tsukuri_” is undoubtedly a modification of the latter.

“_Shōji_” and “_Fusuma_” were not used in “_Shinden-tsukuri_”, and in outside openings what is called “_Kōshi_” (the framed lattice window hung vertically in a manner something like a vertical trap-door with thick white paper stretched on one side) was used. It is divided into two sashes the upper part of which is pushed outward, by means of stays, for ventilation. The hanging arrangement, it seems to me, was general in these times, for the means of partition was achieved by hanging tapestry, reed mats etc. which were hung on lintels of openings. Insufficient function of partitions, the negligence of privacy of rooms were already manifested in these times in our houses; no wonder that our houses of today are built with no regard to this point. The “_Tatami_” (floor mats, literally meaning to fold) had not taken the form of modern “_Tatami_”, it was so shaped that when not in use it was put away folding in suitable size, and made of leather, reeds, silk cloth etc.

From the early part of the fifteenth century, the latter part of middle ages in Europe, the whole empire had fallen into a scene of chaos; innumerable old edifices, public documents, private writings, in a word, the whole art and literature were destroyed under the merciless fire of war. Amid this confusion, we can trace the gradual outgrowth of another type of art; the _Shinden_ type gave place to _Shoin_ type or “_Shoin-tsukuri_”. _Shoin_ in modern idea means a room for study; but on certain occasions it was used as a reception room. The _Shoin_ type proves that the mere copying of Chinese palace like “_Shinden_” no longer satisfactorily fulfilled the requirement of the day. The “_Shoin-tsukuri_” is indeed a prototype of our modern house. Our “_Zashiki_” (parlor) was surely modeled after it, for it has “_Tokonoma_”, “_Tsuke-shoin_” (a recess for books) and “_Tana_”, (“_Chigai-tana_” in the modern house) all of which are main feature of our parlor. _Shinden_ being surrounded by corridor, a vast main middle room is shut out from light, on the contrary the _Shoin_ has light in abundance. It may not be amiss to add a few lines here in regard to “_Tokonoma_”. What the “_Tokonoma_” is in Japanese parlor the fireplace is in American parlor. The use of “_Chigai-tana_” in the former house is like an alcove and shelf put together in the latter house. The fireplace or mantel-piece in American house affords dignity and cheerfulness to the room besides the proper use beautifying and warming the room. “_Tokonoma_” and “_Chigai-tana_” in our houses may give thoroughness of the room by breaking up the feeling of vastness and bareness of the whole appearance, and the nature of decorative treatment may impart the sense of reverence and dignity but no feeling of cheerfulness is imparted. It is altogether too formal, too traditional, and too conservative, and is more formal than is the American fireplace.

Without “_Tokonoma_” and “_Chigai-tana_” and a few hanging frames of paintings or ideograms a Japanese parlor is one empty box surrounded by “_Shoji_” and “_Fusuma_”; no furniture, no carving, no moulding to give grace to the form, no ceiling cornice, no chandelier, these places are being filled by using wood in the horizontal and vertical pieces specially rare species as a post at “_Tokonoma_”, in all showing beautiful natural grain without varnishing or painting. It only displays the skill and manipulation of handling tools in joints and in dressing the face of the pieces. In the interior the wall surfaces are plastered with natural sand[B] glittering with minute particles of mica and felspar. It gives a very good effect. If comfort is one of the main objects, as I said, in the designing of a house, Japanese parlor affords no comfort whatever either to the host or to the guest mentally or physically. Too much conventional rule of procedure in the design of the Japanese parlor unnecessitated the hands of architects and as a consequence no scientific idea was evolved in the design. Here I should not hesitate to state that the comfort was not an object to be observed in the Japanese parlor, nay, not in the Japanese house. Comfort was not much cared for; how can the science develop in such a country?

[B] Sand is found everywhere along the sea coast of Japan in various colors according to places, some times it is colored.

We had been taught from our boyhood not to complain of cold or heat, not to strive after attaining physical comfort, not to show any meanness or sillyness in the traits of daily life, somewhat like an old Spartan mode of training children connected with an oriental religious feeling: the idea is quite oriental or rather Japanese. This unwritten code of _Samurai_ had strictly been observed in former times and educated conservative families are still adhering to it; and I should say that this idea put our country much behind our brother nations on earth in the advancement of science. The modern architects of Japan are often compelled to struggle with this conception which is quite military and not scientific. Simple, natural, tasteful, and clean are words which will express the pervading feature of the Japanese parlor. Should we follow or maintain this unscientific and consequently uncomfortable method of treating our parlor in the future dwelling house?

The Japanese dark ages, the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, left us a memento the architecture of “_Chashitsu_”, (tea-house architecture) the oddest and most unique architecture the world has ever known. Without an adequate knowledge of the treatment of this architecture no one can reach a true kernel of Japanese domestic architecture. “_Chashitsu_” is a little house in which a _Cha-no-yu_ (tea sipping ceremony) is to be held. The practice of _Cha-no-yu_ was much encouraged by the Ashikaga and Toyotomi families, the supreme lords or Shōgun of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This partly as a policy, as I understand, to subdue the rough, rigorous, warlike spirits of _Daimio_ and _Samurai_ at the time of a confused order of society. Let me quote from Professor Nitobē’s “Bushido, the Soul of Japan” a very interesting article concerning _Cha-no-yu_.

“As an example of how the simplest thing can be made into an art and then become spiritual culture, I may take _Cha-no-yu_, the tea ceremony. Tea-sipping as a fine art! Why should it not be? In the children drawing pictures on the sand, or in the savage carving on a rock, was the promise of a Raphael or a Michael Angelo. How much more is the drinking of a beverage, which began with the transcendental contemplation of a Hindoo anchorite, entitled to develop into a handmaid of Religion and Morality? That calmness of mind, that serenity of temper, that composure and quietness of demeanor which are the first essential of _Cha-no-yu_, are without doubt the first conditions of right thinking and right feeling. The scrupulous cleanliness of the little room, shut off from sight and sound of the madding crowd, is in itself conducive to direct one’s thoughts from the world. The bare interior does not engross one’s attention like the innumerable pictures and bric-a-brac of a Western parlor; the presence of _Kakemono_ calls our attention more to grace of design than to beauty of color. The utmost refinement of taste is the object aimed at; whereas anything like display is banished with religious horror. The very fact that it was invented by a contemplative recluse, in a time when wars and rumors of wars were incessant, is well calculated to show that this institution was more than a pastime. Before entering the quiet precincts of the tea-room, the company assembling to partake of the ceremony laid aside, together with their swords, the ferocity of battle-field or the cares of government, there to find peace and friendship.

“_Cha-no-yu_ is more than a ceremony; it is a fine art; it is poetry, with articulate gestures for rhythms: it is a _modus operandi_ of soul discipline. Its greatest value lies in this last phase.--”