Part 1

Transcriber’s Note

This thesis has been transcribed from a hand written document, some Japanese and Latin words were differentiated by printing them, these are marked with _underscores_.

All text in illustrations was originally printed in capital letters.

Words in small capitals are shown in UPPERCASE.

Plates have been moved to the start of the paragraph which they illustrate. Titles, notes and labels from the plates have been transcribed at the very end of the book.

Footnotes have been moved to the end of the paragraph to which they refer.

Inconsistent hyphenation, variant spelling and the author’s romanization of Japanese words have been retained. No changes have been made to correct grammar, but minor changes have been made to punctuation. Other changes that have been made are listed at the end of the book.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF JAPANESE DWELLING HOUSES

BY

SHIGETSURA SHIGA, B.S., 1893

THESIS

FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE

IN THE

GRADUATE SCHOOL

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

PRESENTED, JUNE 1905

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

June 1 1905

THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY SUPERVISION BY

Shigetsura Shiga, B.S. 1893.

ENTITLED Future Development of Japanese Dwelling Houses

IS APPROVED BY ME AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Master of Architecture

N. Clifford Ricker

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF Architecture

Future Development of Japanese Dwelling Houses.

Shigetsura Shiga, B.S.

Introduction.

It was comparatively recently that it became in vogue for the educated circle in Japan to tour over Europe and America to observe and investigate the manner and customs of those civilized nations. And at length they deduced a conclusion that the so-called civilization of the West is not only based on superficial progress of materialism but it had profound root in the mental training of the citizens; comparison and discussion have taken place in every institution of education throughout the Empire. This is one of the procedures of pushing one step further toward the advancement of this country. We hear also too often of late years as to the questionable qualities of the behavior of citizens toward the public, and so much talk about the improvement of general customs of the country. All these are only reflections arising from sharp observation of intelligent Japanese Globe trotters who carefully compared with keen eyes all the conduct and behavior of natives.

The manners and customs of a nation are only the reflection of means of existence, which mainly consist of clothing, food, and shelter; what we call improvements of national living is in the main improvements in these three things. Other thing, such as etiquette, form only an insignificant part which necessarily comes from the method of living; when the latter undergoes a change a corresponding change will follow in the former.

Here the question comes on the start and which at least is a most predominant factor governing the design of our dwelling houses. Have we to design our houses so as to sit on the mat, or to sit on the chair? This may sound strange to a person alien from Japan, yet it is a most important question for the native Japanese in this time of transition. It will be too severe to urge one to chose one in preference to another. If he likes to sit on the mat as he has done, or sit on the chair as all European nations do, either make no difference according to my own view, and under the circumstances of our modern mode of living the houses should be suitable for either way; the future will decide this question. Remember, however, that the way of bending the legs under the weight of the body to which we have so long been accustomed and which has characterized Japanese from all other nations is surely a great impediment for the development of our legs; comparative shortness of legs of all Japanese has as believed by some its cause in this habit. Stretching a body on the Futon (a bed, without bedstead, simply spread over the mat[A] on the floor) at night is not healthy mode of sleeping from hygienical stand point taking in the air much loaded with carbonic acid gas at night. Only common sense is enough to know whether it is evil or not. Still I do not insist upon changing our mode of daily life instilled in us from time unknown; it might be too severe to persuade one to accomplish the work which is almost impossible to do at present; it would be better to leave this question to one’s own judgement for awhile. It will not take more than a century before the problem is solved; and meanwhile it is enough to remember that the only way for progress is to abandon what one consider wrong and to adopt what is right. An inclination of a few minutes of a navigator’s compass when he leaves a port makes a divergence of thousands of miles in a course of a few days, so the discrimination of the majority of people however small the matter may be, greatly influences the civilization of a country.

[A] Japanese mat is 2 ft. 10¾ ins. by 5 ft. 9½ ins. having thickness of 2½ ins. laid on wooden floor.

The second question is whether our dwelling houses should take an appearance of European style or Japanese in aspect. According to my own view, if one choose his habitation to look European he need not hesitate to do so; but if he prefer to treat his house with Japanese design he may do it so: Chinese, Hindoo, Greek, or Roman make no difference whatever as far as the selection of design is concerned; the determination of national art is another question not involved here. The freedom of design should strictly be observed in any time and place provided the precautions hereafter set forth be carefully heeded.

To live in a perfect house is an ideal or ambition quite out of reach; but if he is wealthy enough to start a new home, that impartial judgement and trained eyes with which he should discriminate what the result will be is always necessary. It is dangerous for an uninitiated to live in a house designed by an uninformed builder or an ignorant amateur architect; the outlay for the house is too high to merely display one’s vulgarity or low taste. A result which is an outgrowth of inexperienced hands with little or no attention to the modern application of science, and a sequence of a gathered knowledge of worthless, scattered information would undoubtedly be surpassed by that which worked upon common sense as its foundation and was finished by the principle of aesthetics. This is a paramount important point to be considered by either an architect or a house owner, and is the only way to attain a result near to the perfect and not far from ideal. In this time of transition the design of the Japanese dwelling houses has no definite course by which to follow. And I deem it necessary to point out what to be done and what not to be done for architects and clients, for it concerns greatly the future development of Japanese dwelling houses.

The object of human habitation is not only to keep out the weather or to sustain the life alone; the habitation of primitive aborigines were just for that purpose and had no further need arising from the want of daily necessity. The development of human intellect improves the method of living and its reflection is made apparent by the mode of cloth, food, and dwelling. Civilized nations are not satisfied with houses which were built only to keep out weather or to sustain the life alone, but seek the dwellings which keep their life most safely and at the same time most comfortably. The modern requirements of houses are much complicated and involve so many principles. Notwithstanding that the subject is one of the most interesting as well as comprehensive among architects, yet it is viewed by Japanese architects with somewhat of indifference. The aim and object of dwelling houses is of course safety and comfort in living, but in order to meet the requirements of the house we have to further consider it from scientific, economical, and artistic stand points. It would therefore be appropriate to establish a maxim according to reasoning, as is generally done, either in criticizing or creating any thing; and my discussion on Japanese houses is no exception.

Principles involved in house designing are not so simple as one would suppose, for the work of house designing is simply an application of the scientific, economical, and artistic idea. In other words, stability, sanitary, convenience, economy, comfort, and beauty are six principal elements which no architect or house owner should lose sight of. These elements are principles which govern the designing of houses and conditions which are to be fulfilled, if a house is desired to be perfect, in any time and place. All houses should be erected on these foundations. But the further we think the more we feel the question becomes complicated; for the question of the houses is not so simple that we can grasp it under the elements cited above. A house as the abode of man as a social being; has it no relation to the development of human society and human culture? Also has it no concern with human character and conduct? In discussing dwelling houses, all these should be taken into consideration. And though it seems to be entirely beyond the scope of an architect’s work, yet it has a great concern with the future development of Japanese houses.

There can be nothing perfect in this world; in order to fulfil one desire something else may or must be sacrificed: for economy’s sake beauty may be sacrificed; for sanitation convenience will perhaps, be a victim. On the whole, the work of a house architect is plainly a matter of compromise.

Modern Japanese dwelling houses should not be regarded like curios which only gratify the owner’s curiosity by decorating _Tokonoma_ (the recess in which _Kakemono_ is hung) and _Chigai-tana_ (a shelf in the recess next to _Tokonoma_, art objects being generally displayed on it) in a parlor. A house erected in its rational and appropriated form, on lot in the circle of the metropolitan city of the empire, attracts attention of all nations at large; no matter whether it is a private or a public building is entirely of a public nature. The house is undoubtedly the property of the owner, yet in its widest sense the property of a country, and has a great influence upon public happiness, and at once reveals the standard of living of the natives. We see many a beautiful residence in Europe and America and notice that they are not only boasted of by the owners themselves but by the citizen who guides us to the quarter where wealthy people dwell. They are apparently proud of the beautiful houses, but it may be understood that they are inconceivably proud of the country which possesses them in its realm. A house is surely a decoration of a state, an embellishment of a city, an achievement of the fine arts. Natural supremacy of scenic beauty is no special credit to the country. Artificial supremacy in art and science is true pride of a nation.

Japanese houses in general are destitute of nature of publicity; they are confined in the enclosure of earth wall or tall wooden fence so that they are hardly seen from outside (see the drawings of different style of fences). Does this not mean that the house is build for one’s own sake not being for the purpose of showing it to others? This spiritual selfishness is well manifested in the predominant feature of Japanese dwelling houses. Or we may draw a conclusion in another way. The Japanese are generally known as reserved or modest people and do not like to show off what they possess or what they have done; they feel quite a shame if they are regarded by others to be pretentious or vain. This prevalent motives common to all Japanese, pervades all the doings of the people. The seclusion of Japanese houses from the sight of the public is mainly ascribed to this fact; the true phase perhaps not being in the selfishness but in the reserve. It may be admitted, however, that Japanese houses in their construction are not suitable to show whole structure to the public thoroughfare. There is another reason that compelled the Japanese houses to take the feature of seclusion; in the feudal time of Tokugawa Shōgun, more than three hundred lords or Daimio being scattered over the whole empire ruled their subjects or retainers with what we now might call despotism. A subject who is in a habit somewhat of showing off his wealth could not escape from the eyes of a lord, or a lord of lords the Shōgun. The heavy tax was levied from him not as a charge for vanity but it considered his wealth to be capable of giving as much substantial assistance as he could endure for his lord.--The Corean people of today is unfortunately a victim of authority under the same circumstance.--Under such circumstances, is it not natural that a person conceal his wealth from the inquisitive eyes of authority? The seclusion of houses became necessary and it was, in fact, a natural consequence. Japanese are modest or reserved as most Europeans call them, but notice there is a difference between reserve and concealment. Are Japanese houses modest or reserved as a result of national spirit? Or are they so in order to conceal their true phase? This is a question not easily determined, still it is safe to regard the result as a sequence of mental reserve and material concealment, altogether inadmissible to the modern idea.

If one is loyal enough to his country give up the principle of seclusion.--I do not for a moment mean to persuade to show off--widely open the gate and manifest the true phase of the house and beautify it with his might, and, as a group, decorate the city; it is a duty as a citizen, and is charity to the poor as a certain English lady puts it. Tall wooden fence, heavy earth wall inclosing both houses and gardens, altogether impressing an idea of a prison, should be avoided in the houses to be erected hereafter.

This wide open idea much deviates from the statement made by the author of “Successful Houses” on the American dwelling houses; “it certainly lends no picturesque element to the landscape, and affords not the slightest trace of privacy to its owner, but simply boldly proclaims the ownership of the enclosed earth, as if to say: ‘I own these 60 × 175 feet; you may look over and covet my house, but you may not enter’.” I do not believe that American wide open principle of house lot may involve any selfishness or means to excite covetousness of passing strangers. This principle, however, may not prove to be harmful if it introduced, to a certain extent, in a seclusion principle of our Japanese houses. Here I should again state that the seclusion principle of Japanese houses does not involve any sense that “each man’s house is his castle” which was said by laying most stress upon man’s proper right. On the whole, the comprehensive idea of reserve and modesty pervades all Japanese houses from exterior treatment and to interior decoration. If it is one of the principles of human nature that things half seen appeal most strongly to our taste and tempt us most with interest and appreciation, as the same author said, American fences are too low, and those of Japanese are too high; we should take the average of the two.

The question of home education is a much talked of subject of late years. It is of paramount importance for the parents and elders of a family to lead their youngers and children by behaving themselves so that the latter can be moulded after the mould which had been laid down by the former. Most Japanese emphatically call attention to this point when they talk of the home education. But we should acknowledge that this is not all that will affect the character or culture of young people. Every body knows that a school, in its nature is a place where the young people are educated; yet the majority of people do not know how the preliminary considerations had been taken in to account before the erection of the school was carried out; the kind and arrangement of the seats and desks, the position of black boards, the size of windows, the descriptions of curtains, the size and shape of class rooms, the height of ceiling, and even the minor detail of open and close arrangement of doors. These and many other particulars are subjects which one cannot lose sight of before the final end of education is fulfilled. Thus, if such preliminaries be necessary in schools, why are not like cautions, if not the same, necessary for our dwelling houses in order that they may serve the purpose of home education?

It may have a certain effect upon undeveloped minds of children to impart the mental taste of fine arts if one decorates the rooms with pictures and curios. The hanging of atlas and the exhibits of the specimens of plants and animals in rooms for decoration may help the development of their scientific idea. Any picture or bust of an illustrious man may give a hint in regard to their future career. These are not important factors, however, from an architectural stand point, as the decoration of a house though they may have no small influence upon childrens’ character.

A father is the man who knows best his son’s character. Japanese is the man who is most fully aware of the weak points of his fellow-citizen; every body admits that we are inclined to irregularity in doing things, destitute of selfrespect, indifferent regarding individual proper rights, these are only a few among many which are to be cited. I feel myself that these weak points as a nation may be attributed, for the most part, to the construction and arrangement of the houses we live in. We know that our present houses are the consequence of a change of our national character which has been taking place from time to time, and I deem it quite high time for us to form a new character by picking up every thing that is good and throwing away every thing that is evil without any regard to prejudice and to give birth to a new form in this land of whirlpool of occidental and oriental current. Let me give examples how our houses exerted an influence upon our character, and thus the conclusion may be drawn that in order to bring about a new character we have to remodel our houses accordingly.

Notice the manner of the working class when they are doing work; they take rest irregularly while working; tea, tobacco, newspapers are things to interrupt the continuity of working hours, and even a little time is stolen by talking over some matter which appeared in the newspaper. This is not only the case with working class, but in some extent may be applied to the officials of some public and private establishments. There may be various causes of this manner of irregularity of working, still I dare to say that the construction of our houses is one of the influences which tends to this abominable habit. At least we are trained to do so in our houses. If we do so in the house, why not so outside of the house? Nearly all wall surfaces of Japanese houses are open for _Shōji_ (sliding sashes lined with white paper having grooves on a sill, sashes sliding on these grooves) or _Fusuma_, so that the temperature of inside and outside is nearly the same in winter. The perfect ventilation is secured only at the expence of heating. And if this imperfectness of heating be ascribed to the situation of the country which, in most part, lies in the temperate zone, we find quite a contradiction to this in the fact that Japan contains states in the south whose average temperature is just as warm as the Sandwich Island and in the north the states whose temperature is just as cold as Boston, and yet the feature of houses is about the same in both extremities except a little modification in construction. We find such a fact in all countries in the world. Architecture is more affected by the influence of style and materials than climate itself.

Japanese houses are heated by “_hibachi_” (literally means a fire box: a box generally made of wood, the inside of which is lined with a sheet of metal and in it fine ashes are filled and in the middle of it charcoal fire is placed. It is an exquisite piece of cabinet work. The average size is One foot six inches square and about one foot high though there are great many different sizes and designs) in winter. It is not indeed sufficient to meet the requirement for heating, and is not admissible from the sanitary point of view. As we have nothing for heating purpose but this “_hibachi_”, the only way to get warm is to expose our face and hands over the fire so that our working hands are practically tied up, for “_hibachi_” is not intended to warm the room, inasmuch as the box is not designed to do so. Tea, teapot, teacups, and hot water are generally seen around “_hibachi_” and attract one’s temptation. This is a part of home life and often seen even in old business offices and work shops. In winter we have such a system of heating far more primitive than fireplace which was much admired by J.P. Putnum. How can we hope from such institution a satisfactory result of working? This custom leads us to do work irregularly indoors as well as outdoors. In a word the construction of our houses is responsible for a large share with this evil result.

The rareness of partition walls is a main feature in our houses. “_Shōji_” and “_Fusuma_” are only partitions which divide one room from another. (“_Shōji_” and “_Fusuma_” are illustrated in the plates) A house itself is one vast room if “_Shōji_” and “_Fusuma_” be removed, and from a master’s room a kitchen and servants’ room are visible, for there is no distinct partition between them. Because “_Shōji_” and “_Fusuma_” are not sufficient partition to separate one room from another, simply we are careful not to intrude one another’s rooms. In respectable families etiquette is strictly observed, and by this imaginary partition alone one room is divided from another. As we cannot expect such an imaginary partition in ordinary families, an inevitable rude practice of intruding on other’s room is unavoidable. Although in our houses a long narrow veranda serves the requirements of a hall or a passage in European houses, still the lack of hall system might be a main cause of the careless practices referred to. Even though one dares not pass through the “_Fusuma_”, for instance in a hotel, the voices can be heard and dust can penetrate through the open joint of “_Fusuma_” into the next room. This makes evident that the fact that our houses are so arranged that the privacy of rooms is totally neglected. On the whole, abolish “_hibachi_” so as to avoid an irregularity of working; put up partition in order to secure privacy. Then one of the material aids of promoting the spirit of selfrespect may be established.