Chapter 10

_Lactarius piperatus_, Fr., is classed in England with dangerous, sometimes poisonous species, whereas the late Dr. Curtis, of North Carolina, has distinctly informed us that it is cooked and eaten in the United States, and that he has partaken of it. He includes _Lactarius insulsus_, Fr., and _Lactarius subdulcis_, Fr.,[g] amongst esculent species; both are also found in this country, but not reputed as edible; and _Lactarius angustissimus_, Lasch, which is not British. Species of _Lactarius_ seem to be eaten almost indiscriminately in Russia when preserved in vinegar and salt, in which condition they form an important item in the kinds of food allowed in their long fasts, some _Boleti_ in the dried state entering into the same category.

The species of _Russula_ in many respects resemble _Lactarii_ without milk. Some of them are dangerous, and others esculent. Amongst the latter may be enumerated _Russula heterophylla_, Fr., which is very common in woods. Vittadini pronounces it unsurpassed for fineness of flavour by even the notable _Amanita cæsarea_.[h] Roques gives also an account in its favour as consumed in France. Both these authors give favourable accounts of _Russula virescens_, P.,[i] which the peasants about Milan are in the habit of putting over wood embers to toast, and eating afterwards with a little salt. Unfortunately it is by no means common in England. A third species of _Russula_, with buff-yellow gills, is _Russula alutacea_, Fr., which is by no means to be despised, notwithstanding that Dr. Badham has placed it amongst species to be avoided. Three or four others have also the merit of being harmless, and these recorded as esculent by some one or more mycological authors: _Russula lactea_, Fr., a white species, found also in the United States; _Russula lepida_, Fr., a roseate species, found also in lower Carolina, U.S.; and another reddish species, _Russula vesca_, Fr., as well as _Russula decolorans_, Fr. Whilst writing of this genus, we may observe, by way of caution, that it includes also one very noxious red species, _Russula emetica_, Fr., with white gills, with which some of the foregoing might be confounded by inexperienced persons.

The chantarelle _Cantharellus cibarius_, Fr., has a most charming and enticing appearance and odour. In colour, it is of a bright golden yellow, and its smell has been compared to that of ripe apricots. It is almost universally eaten in all countries where it is found, England excepted, where it is only to be met with at the "Freemason's Tavern" on state occasions, and at the tables of pertinacious mycophagists.[j] Trattinnick says: "Not only this same fungus never did any one harm, but might even restore the dead."[k]

The fairy-ring champignon _Marasmius oreades_, Fr., though small, is plentiful, and one of the most delicious of edible fungi. It grows in exposed pastures, forming rings, or parts of rings. This champignon possesses the advantage of drying readily, and preserving its aroma for a long time. We have often regretted that no persistent attempts and experiments have been made with the view of cultivating this excellent and useful species. _Marasmius scorodonius_, Fr.,[l] a small, strong-scented, and in all respects inferior species, found on heaths and dry pastures, extending even to the United States, is consumed in Germany, Austria, and other continental countries, where, perhaps its garlic odour has been one of its recommendations as an ingredient in sauces. In this enumeration we have not exhausted all the gill-bearing species which might be eaten, having included only those which have some reputation as esculents, and of these more particularly those found in Great Britain and the United States.

Amongst the _Polyporei_, in which the gill plates are represented by pores or tubes, fewer esculent species are to be met with than in the _Agaricini_, and the majority of these belong to the genus _Boletus_. Whilst in Vienna and Hanover, we were rather surprised to find _Boletus edulis_, Fr., cut into thin slices and dried, exposed for sale in almost every shop where meal, peas, and other farinaceous edibles were sold. This species is common enough in England, but as a rule it does not seem to please the English palate, whereas on the continent no fungus is more commonly eaten. This is believed to be the suillus eaten by the ancient Romans,[m] who obtained it from Bithynia. The modern Italians dry them on strings for winter use, and in Hungary a soup is made from them when fresh. A more excellent species, according to our judgment, is _Boletus æstivalis_, Fr.,[n] which appears in early summer, and has a peculiar nutty flavour when raw, reminding one more of a fresh mushroom. _Boletus scaber_, Fr.,[o] is also common in Britain, as well as the continent, but does not enjoy so good a reputation as _B. edulis_. Krombholz says that _Boletus bovinus_, Fr., a gregarious species, found on heaths and in fir woods, is much sought after abroad as a dish, and is good when dried. _Boletus castaneus_, Fr.,[p] is a small species with a mild, pleasant taste when raw, and very good when properly cooked. It is not uncommonly eaten on the continent. _Boletus chrysenteron_, Fr.,[q] and _Boletus subtomentosus_, Fr., are said to be very poor eating, and some authors have considered them injurious; but Mr. W. G. Smith states that he has on more than one occasion eaten the former, and Trattinnick states that the latter is eaten in Germany. The late Mr. Salter informed us that, when employed on the geological staff, he at one time lived almost entirely on different species of Boleti, without using much discrimination. Sir W. C. Trevelyan also informs us that he has eaten _Boletus luridus_ without any unpleasant consequences, but we confess that we should be sorry to repeat the experiment. Dr. Badham remarks that he has eaten _Boletus Grevillei_, B., _Boletus flavus_, With., and _Boletus granulatus_, L., the latter being recognized also as edible abroad. Dr. Curtis experimented, in the United States, on _Boletus collinitus_, and although he professes not to be particularly fond of the Boleti, he recognizes it as esculent, and adds that it had been pronounced delicious by some to whom he had sent it. He also enumerates as edible _Boletus luteus_, Fr., _Boletus elegans_, Fr., _Boletus flavidus_, Fr., _Boletus versipellis_, Fr., _Boletus leucomelas_, Tr., and _Boletus ovinus_, Sch. Two Italian species of _Polyporus_ must not be forgotten. These are _Polyporus tuberaster_, Pers., which is procured by watering the _pietra funghaia_, or fungus stone, a kind of tufa, in which the mycelium is embedded. It is confined to Naples. The other species is _Polyporus corylinus_, Mauri., procured artificially in Rome from charred stumps of the cob-nut tree.[r]

Of true _Polyporus_, only two or three species have been regarded favourably as esculents. These are--_Polyporus intybaceus_, Fr., which is of very large size, sometimes attaining as much as forty pounds; _Polyporus giganteus_, Fr., also very large, and leathery when old. Both these species are natives of Britain. Only young and juicy specimens must be selected for cooking. _Polyporus umbellatus_, Fr., is stated by Fries to be esculent, but it is not found in Britain. _Polyporus squamosus_, Fr., has been also included; but Mrs. Hussey thinks that one might as well think of eating saddle-flaps. None of these receive very much commendation. Dr. Curtis enumerates, amongst North American species, the _Polyporus cristatus_, Fr., _Polyporus poripes_, Fr., which, when raw, tastes like the best chestnuts or filberts, but is rather too dry when cooked. _Polyporus Berkeleii_, Fr., is intensely pungent when raw, but when young, and before the pores are visible, it may be eaten with impunity, all its pungency being dissipated by cooking. _Polyporus confluens_, Fr., he considers superior, and, in fact, quite a favourite. _Polyporus sulfureus_, Fr., which is not eaten in Europe, he considers just tolerably safe, but not to be coveted. It is by no means to be recommended to persons with weak stomachs. In his catalogue, Dr. Curtis enumerates one hundred and eleven species of edible fungi found in Carolina.[s]

With _Fistulina hepatica_, Fr., it is different; for here we encounter a fleshy, juicy fungus, resembling beefsteak a little in appearance, and so much more in its uses, that the name of "beefsteak fungus" has been given to it. Some authors are rapturous in their praise of _Fistulina_. It sometimes attains a very large size, Dr. Badham quoting[t] one found by himself nearly five feet in circumference, and weighing eight pounds; whilst another found by Mr. Graves weighed nearly thirty pounds. In Vienna it is sliced and eaten with salad, like beetroot, which it then much resembles. On the continent it is everywhere included amongst the best of edible species.

The _Hydnei_, instead of pores or tubes, are characterized by spines or warts, over which the fructifying surface is expanded. The most common is _Hydnum repandum_, Fr., found in woods and woody places in England, and on the continent, extending into the United States. When raw, it is peppery to the taste, but when cooked is much esteemed. From its drier nature, it can readily be dried for winter use. Less common in England is _Hydnum imbricatum_, Fr., although not so uncommon on the continent. It is eaten in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, France, and elsewhere. _Hydnum lævigatum_, Swartz, is eaten in Alpine districts.[u] Of the branched species, _Hydnum coralloides_, Scop.,[v] and _Hydnum Caput Medusæ_, Bull,[w] are esculent, but very rare in England. The latter is not uncommon in Austria and Italy, the former in Germany, Switzerland, and France. _Hydnum erinaceum_, Bull, is eaten in Germany[x] and France.

The Clavarioid fungi are mostly small, but of these the majority of the white-spored are edible. _Clavaria rugosa_, Bull, is a common British species, as also is _Clavaria coralloides_, L., the former being found also in the United States. _Clavaria fastigiata_, D. C., is not uncommon; but _Clavaria amethystina_, Bull, a beautiful violet species, is rare. In France and Italy, _Clavaria cinerea_, Bull, is classed with esculents; and it is not uncommon in Britain. _Clavaria botrytis_, P., and _Clavaria aurea_, Schæff., are large and beautiful species, but rare with us; they extend also into the United States. Others might be named (Dr. Curtis enumerates thirteen species eaten in Carolina), which are certainly wholesome, but they are of little importance as edible species. _Sparassis crispa_, Fr., is, on the contrary, very large, resembling in size,[y] and somewhat in appearance, a cauliflower; it has of late years been found several times in this country. In Austria it is fricasseed with butter and herbs.

Of the true Tremellæ, none merit insertion here. The curious Jew's ear (_Hirneola auricula-Judæ_, Fr.), with one or two other species of _Hirneola_, are collected in great quantities in Tahiti, and shipped in a dried state to China, where they are used for soup. Some of these find their way to Singapore.

The false truffles (_Hypogæi_) are of doubtful value, one species (_Melanogaster variegatus_, Tul.) having formerly been sold in the markets of Bath as a substitute for the genuine truffle.[z] Neither amongst the _Phalloidei_ do we meet with species of any economic value. The gelatinous volva of a species of _Ileodictyon_ is eaten by the New Zealanders, to whom it is known as thunder dirt; whilst that of _Phallus Mokusin_ is applied to a like purpose in China;[AA] but these examples would not lead us to recommend a similar use for _Phallus impudicus_, Fr., in Britain, or induce us to prove the assertion of a Scotch friend that the porous stem is very good eating.

One species of puff-ball, _Lycoperdon giganteum_, Fr,[AB] has many staunch advocates, and whilst young and cream-like, it is, when well manipulated, an excellent addition to the breakfast-table. A decided advantage is possessed by this species, since one specimen is often found large enough to satisfy the appetites of ten or twelve persons. Other species of _Lycoperdon_ have been eaten when young, and we have been assured by those who have made the experiment, that they are scarcely inferior to their larger congener. _Bovista nigrescens_, Fr., and _Bovista plumbea_, Fr., are also eaten in the United States. More than one species of _Lycoperdon_ and _Bovista_ appear in the bazaars of India, as at Secunderabad and Rangoon; while the white ant-hills, together with an excellent Agaric, produce one or more species of _Podaxon_ which are esculent when young. A species of _Scleroderma_ which grows abundantly in sandy districts, is substituted for truffles in Perigord pies, of which, however, it does not possess any of the aroma.

Passing over the rest of the sporiferous fungi, we find amongst the _Ascomycetous_ group several that are highly esteemed. Amongst these may first be named the species of morel, which are regarded as delicacies wherever they are found. _Morchella esculenta_, Pers., is the most common species, but we have also _Morchella semilibera_, D. C., and the much larger _Morchella crassipes_, Pers. Probably all the species of _Morchella_ are esculent, and we know that many besides the above are eaten in Europe and other places; _Morchella deliciosa_, Fr., in Java; _Morchella bohemica_, Kromb., in Bohemia; _Morchella gigaspora_, Cooke, and _Morchella deliciosa_, Fr., in Kashmere.[AC] _Morchella rimosipes_, D. C., occurs in France and Bohemia; _Morchella Caroliniana_, Bosc., in the Southern United States of America. W. G. Smith records the occurrence in Britain of specimens of _Morchella crassipes_, P., ten inches in height, and one specimen was eleven inches high, with a diameter of seven and a half inches.[AD]

Similar in uses, though differing in appearance, are the species of _Helvella_, of which several are edible. In both these genera, the individuals can be dried so readily that they are the more valuable on that account, as they can be used for flavouring in winter when fresh specimens of any kind of fungus are difficult to procure. The most common English species is _Helvella crispa_, Fr., but _Helvella lacunosa_, Fr., is declared to be equally good, though not so large and somewhat rare. _Helvella infula_, Fr., is also a large species, but is not British, although it extends to North America, as also does _Helvella sulcata_, Afz. Intermediate between the morel and _Helvella_ is the species which was formerly included with the latter, but now known as _Gyromitra esculenta_, Fr.[AE] It is rarely found in Great Britain, but is more common on the continent, where it is held in esteem. A curious stipitate fungus, with a pileus like a hood, called _Verpa digitaliformis_, Pers.,[AF] is uncommon in England, but Vittadini states that it is sold in the Italian markets, although only to be recommended when no other esculent fungus offers, which is sometimes the case in spring.[AG]

Two or three species of _Peziza_ have the reputation of being esculent, but they are of very little value; one of these is _Peziza acetabulum_, L., another is _Peziza cochleata_, Huds., and a third is _Peziza venosa_, Pers.[AH] The latter has the most decided nitrous odour, and also fungoid flavour, whilst the former seem to have but little to recommend them; we have seen whole baskets full of _Peziza cochleata_ gathered in Northamptonshire as a substitute for morels.

A very interesting genus of edible fungi, growing on evergreen beech trees in South America, has been named _Cyttaria_. One of these, _Cyttaria Darwinii_, B., occurs in Terra del Fuego, where it was found by Mr. C. Darwin[AI] growing in vast numbers, and forming a very essential article of food for the natives. Another is _Cyttaria Berteroi_, B., also seen by Mr. Darwin in Chili, and eaten occasionally, but apparently not so good as the preceding.[AJ] Another species is _Cyttaria Gunnii_, B., which abounds in Tasmania, and is held in repute amongst the settlers for its esculent properties.[AK]

It remains for us only to note the subterranean fungi, of which the truffle is the type, to complete our enumeration of esculent species. The truffle which is consumed in England is _Tuber æstivum_, Vitt.; but in France the more highly-flavoured _Tuber melanospermum_, Vitt.,[AL] and also _Tuber magnatum_, Pico, with some other species. In Italy they are very common, whilst some are found in Algeria. One species at least is recorded in the North-west of India, but in Northern Europe and North America they appear to be rare, and _Terfezia Leonis_ is used as an esculent in Damascus. A large species of _Mylitta_, sometimes several inches in diameter, occurs plentifully in some parts of Australia. Although often included with fungi, the curious production known under the name of _Pachyma cocos_, Fr., is not a fungus, as proved by the examinations made by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley. It is eaten under the name of "Tuckahoe" in the United States, and as it consists almost entirely of pectic acid, it is sometimes used in the manufacture of jelly.

In the Neilgherries (S. India), a substance is occasionally found which is allied to the native bread of southern latitudes. It is found at an elevation of 5,000 feet. The natives call it "a little man's bread," in allusion to the tradition that the Neilgherries were once peopled by a race of dwarfs.[AM] At first it was supposed that these were the bulbs of some orchid, but later another view was held of their character. Mr. Scott, who examined the specimens sent down to him, remarks that, instead of being the product of orchids, it is that of an underground fungus of the genus _Mylitta_. It indeed seems, he says, very closely allied to, if really distinct from, the so-called native bread of Tasmania.[AN]

Of the fungi employed in medicine, the first place must be assigned to ergot, which is the sclerotioid condition of a species of _Claviceps_. It occurs not only on rye but on wheat, and many of the wild grasses. On account of its active principle, this fungus still holds its place in the Materia Medica. Others which formerly had a reputation are now discarded, as, for instance, the species of _Elaphomyces_; and _Polyporus officinalis_, Fr., which has been partly superseded as a styptic by other substances, was formerly employed as a purgative. The ripe spongy capillitium of the great puff-ball _Lycoperdon giganteum_, Fr., has been used for similar purposes, and also recommended as an anodyne; indeed formidable surgical operations have been performed under its influence, and it is frequently used as a narcotic in the taking of honey. Langsdorf gives a curious account of its employment as a narcotic; and in a recent work on Kamtschatka it is said to obtain a very high price in that country. Dr. Porter Smith writes of its employment medicinally by the Chinese, but from his own specimens it is clearly a species of _Polysaccum_, which he has mistaken for _Lycoperdon_. In China several species are supposed to possess great virtue, notably the _Torrubia sinensis_, Tul.,[AO] which is developed on dead caterpillars; as it is, however, recommended to administer it as a stuffing to roast duck, we may be sceptical as to its own sanitary qualities. _Geaster hygrometricus_, Fr., we have also detected amongst Chinese drugs, as also a species of _Polysaccum_, and the small hard _Mylitta lapidescens_, Horn. In India, a large but imperfect fungus, named provisionally _Sclerotium stipitatum_, Curr., found in nests of the white ant, is supposed to possess great medicinal virtues.[AP] A species of _Polyporus_ (_P. anthelminticus_, B.), which grows at the root of old bamboos, is employed in Burmah as an anthelmintic.[AQ] In former times the Jew's ear (_Hirneola auricula Judæ_, Fr.) was supposed to possess great virtues, which are now discredited. Yeast is still included amongst pharmaceutical substances, but could doubtless be very well dispensed with. Truffles are no longer regarded as aphrodisiacs.

For other uses, we can only allude to amadou, or German tinder, which is prepared in Northern Europe from _Polyporus fomentarius_, Fr., cut in slices, dried, and beaten until it is soft. This substance, besides being used as tinder, is made into warm caps, chest protectors, and other articles. This same, or an allied species of _Polyporus_, probably _P. igniarius_, Fr., is dried and pounded as an ingredient in snuff by the Ostyacks on the Obi. In Bohemia some of the large Polyporei, such as _P. igniarius_ and _P. fomentarius_, have the pores and part of the inner substance removed, and then the pileus is fastened in an inverted position to the wall, by the part where originally it adhered to the wood. The cavity is then filled with mould, and the fungus is used, with good effect, instead of flower-pots, for the cultivation of such creeping plants as require but little moisture.[AR]

The barren mycelioid condition of _Penicillium crustaceum_, Fr., is employed in country districts for the domestic manufacture of vinegar from saccharine liquor, under the name of the "vinegar plant." It is stated that _Polysaccum crassipes_, D. C.,[AS] is employed in the South of Europe to produce a yellow dye; whilst recently _Polyporus sulfureus_, Fr., has been recommended for a similar purpose. _Agaricus muscarius_, Fr., the fly-agaric, known to be an active poison, is used in decoction in some parts of Europe for the destruction of flies and bugs. Probably _Helotium æruginosum_, Fr.,[AT] deserves mention here, because it stains the wood on which it grows, by means of its diffuse mycelium, of a beautiful green tint, and the wood thus stained is employed for its colour in the manufacture of Tonbridge ware.

This completes the list, certainly of the most important, of the fungi which are of any direct use to humanity as food, medicine, or in the arts. As compared with lichens, the advantage is certainly in favour of fungi; and even when compared with algæ, the balance appears in their favour. In fact, it may be questioned whether, after all, fungi do not present a larger proportion of really useful species than any other of the cryptogams; and without any desire to disparage the elegance of ferns, the delicacy of mosses, the brilliancy of some algæ, or the interest which attaches to lichens, it may be claimed for fungi that in real utility (not uncombined with injuries as real) they stand at the head of the cryptogams, and in closest alliance with the flowering plants.

[A] Badham, Dr. C. D., "A Treatise on the Esculent Funguses of England," 1st edition (1847), p. 81, pl. 4; 2nd edition, edited by F. Currey, M.A. (1863), p. 94, pl. 4; Cooke, M. C., "A Plain and Easy Account of British Fungi," 1st edition (1862), p. 44.

[B] Mr. Worthington Smith has published, on two sheets, coloured figures of the most common esculent and poisonous fungi (London, Hardwicke), which will be found more useful than mere description in the discrimination of the species.

[C] Roques, J., "Hist. des Champignons Comestibles et Vénéneux," Paris (1832), p. 130.

[D] Lenz, Dr. H. 0., "Die Nützlichen und Schädlichen Schwämme," Gotha (1831), p. 32, pl. 2.

[E] Bull, H. G., in "Transactions of Woolhope Club" (1869). Fries admits them as distinct species in the new edition of his "Epicrisis."

[F] Hussey's "Illustrations of Mycology," ser. i. pl. 79.

[G] Sowerby's "British Fungi," pl. 244.

[H] Favre-Guillarmod, "Les Champignons Comestibles du Canton de Neuchatel" (1861), p. 27.

[I] Sowerby, "English Fungi," pl. 122; Smith, in "Seemann's Journ. Bot." (1866), t. 46, f. 45.