Chapter 1

THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES.

VOLUME XV.

THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES.

_Works already Published._

I. THE FORMS OF WATER IN RAIN AND RIVERS, ICE AND GLACIERS. By J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. With 26 Illustrations. Price, $1.50.

II. PHYSICS AND POLITICS; or, Thoughts on the Application of the Principles of "Natural Selection" and "Inheritance" to Political Society. By Walter Bagehot. Price, $1.50.

III. FOODS. By Dr. Edward Smith. Illustrated. Price, $1.75.

IV. MIND AND BODY: the Theories of their Relations. By Alexander Bain, LL.D. Price, $1.50.

V. THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY. By Herbert Spencer. Price, $1.50.

VI. THE NEW CHEMISTRY. By Professor Josiah P. Cooke, of Harvard University. Illustrated. Price, $2.00.

VII. ON THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. By Professor Balfour Stewart. Fourteen Engravings. Price, $1.50.

VIII. ANIMAL LOCOMOTION; or, Walking, Swimming, and Flying. By Dr. J. B. Pettigrew, M.D., F.R.S. 119 Illustrations. Price, $1.75.

IX. RESPONSIBILITY IN MENTAL DISEASE. By Dr. Henry Maudsley. Price, $1.50.

X. THE SCIENCE OF LAW. By Professor Sheldon Amos. Price, $1.75.

XI. ANIMAL MECHANISM; or, Aërial and Terrestrial Locomotion. By C. J. Marey, Professor of the College of France, Member of the Academy of Medicine, Paris. 117 Engravings. Price, $1.75.

XII. HISTORY OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN RELIGION AND SCIENCE. By John W. Draper, M.D., LL.D. Price, $1.75.

XIII. THE DOCTRINE OF DESCENT AND DARWINISM. By Oscar Schmidt, Professor in the University of Strasburg. Price, $1.50.

XIV. THE CHEMISTRY OF LIGHT AND PHOTOGRAPHY; in its Application to Art, Science, and Industry. By Dr. Hermann Vogel. One Hundred Illustrations. (_In press._)

XV. FUNGI; their Nature, Influence, and Uses. By M. C. Cooke, M.A., LL.D. Edited by Rev. M. J. Berkeley, M.A., F.L.S. With 109 Illustrations. (_In press._)

XVI. OPTICS. By Professor Lommel, University of Erlangen. (_In press._)

THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES.

FUNGI:

THEIR

NATURE AND USES.

BY M. C. COOKE, M.A., LL.D.

EDITED BY THE REV. M. J. BERKELEY, M.A., F.L.S.

NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 549 AND 551 BROADWAY. 1875.

PREFACE BY THE EDITOR.

As my name appears on the title-page of this volume, it is necessary that I should exactly state what part I had in its preparation. I had no doubt originally engaged to undertake the work myself; but finding, from multiplicity of engagements and my uncertain health, that I could not accomplish it satisfactorily, I thought the best course I could take was to recommend Mr. Cooke to the publishers; a gentleman well known, not only in this country, but in the United States. The whole of the work has therefore been prepared by himself, the manuscript and proof sheets being submitted to me from time to time, in which I merely suggested such additions as seemed needful, subjoining occasionally a few notes. As the work is intended for students, the author has had no hesitation in repeating what has been stated in former chapters where it has been thought to prove useful. I have no doubt that the same high character will justly apply to this as to Mr. Cooke's former publications, and especially to his "Handbook of British Fungi."

M. J. BERKELEY.

SIBBERTOFT,

_November 23, 1874._

CONTENTS.

PAGE I. NATURE OF FUNGI. 1 II. STRUCTURE. 17 III CLASSIFICATION 64 IV. USES. 82 V. NOTABLE PHENOMENA. 105 VI. THE SPORE AND ITS DISSEMINATION. 119 VII. GERMINATION AND GROWTH. 137 VIII. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION. 163 IX. POLYMORPHISM. 182 X. INFLUENCES AND EFFECTS. 209 XI. HABITATS. 233 XII. CULTIVATION. 253 XIII. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 266 XIV. COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION. 287 INDEX. 295

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. PAGE 1. Agaric in Process of Growth. 17 2. Section of Common Mushroom. 21 3. Sterile cells, Basidia, Cystidium, from _Gomphidius_. 21 4. _Polyporus giganteus_ (reduced). 23 5. _Hydnum repandum._ 24 6. _Calocera viscosa._ 24 7. _Tremella mesenterica._ 24 8. Basidia and spores of _Phallus_. 28 9. Basidia and spores of _Lycoperdon_. 29 10. Threads of _Trichia_. 31 11. _Arcyria incarnata_, with portion of threads and spore. 33 12. _Diachæa elegans._ 34 13. _Cyathus vernicosus._ 34 14. _Cyathus_, Sporangia and spores. 35 15. _Asterosporium Hoffmanni._ 36 16. Barren Cysts and Pseudospores of _Lecythea_. 36 17. _Coleosporium Tussilaginis._ 36 18. _Melampsora salicina_, pseudospores of 36 19. _Cystopus candidus_, conidia of 38 20. _Xenodochus carbonarius_, pseudospore. 38 21. _Phragmidium bulbosum_, pseudospores. 38 22. Pseudospores of _Puccinia_. 40 23. _Thecaphora hyalina_, pseudospores. 41 24. _Æcidium Berberidis_, peridia of 41 25. _Helminthosporium molle_, threads and spores. 42 26. _Acrothecium simplex._ 44 27. _Peronospora Arenariæ._ 44 28. _Polyactis cinerea._ 47 29. _Peziza Fuckeliana_, with ascus and sporidia. 47 30. _Penicillium chartarum._ 50 31. _Mucor mucedo_, with sporangia. 50 32. Small portion of _Botrytis Jonesii_. 54 33. Section of cup of _Ascobolus_. 57 34. Asci, sporidia, and paraphyses of _Ascobolus_. 59 35. Perithecium of _Sphæria_. 61 36. _Uncinula adunca_, conceptacle with appendages. 62 37. _Agaricus nudus._ 66 38. _Scleroderma vulgare_, Fr. 69 39. _Ceuthospora phacidioides._ 69 40. _Rhopalomyces candidus._ 74 41. _Mucor caninus._ 75 42. _Sphæria aquila_, cluster of perithecia. 78 43. _Morchella gigaspora_, from Kashmir. 99 44. _Cyttaria Gunnii_ 101 45. Spores of Agarics 121 46. Spores of _Lactarius_ 121 46a. Spores of _Gomphidius_ 122 47. Spores of _Polyporus_, _Boletus_, and _Hydnum_. 122 48. _Diachea elegans_, capellitium of 123 49. Spore of _Hendersonia polycystis_. 126 50. Spores of _Dilophospora graminis_. 126 51. Spores of _Discosia_. 126 52. Spore of _Prosthemium betulinum_. 126 53. Spore of _Stegonosporium cellulosum_. 126 54. Stylospores of _Coryneum disciforme_. 126 55. Spores of _Asterosporium Hoffmanni_. 126 56. Spores of _Pestalozzia_. 126 57. _Bispora monilioides_, concatenate spores 126 58. Pseudospores of _Thecaphora hyalina_. 128 59. Pseudospores of _Puccinia_. 128 60. Pseudospores of _Triphragmium_. 128 61. Pseudospores of _Phragmidium bulbosum_. 128 62. Winter spores of _Melampsora salicina._ 128 63. Spores of _Helicocoryne_. 129 64. Sporidium of _Genea verrucosa_. 130 65. Alveolate sporidium of _Tuber_. 130 66. Asci, sporidia, and paraphyses of _Ascobolus_. 131 67. Sporidium of _Ostreichnion Americanum_. 132 68. Ascus and sporidia of _Hypocrea_. 135 69. Sporidium of _Sphæria ulnaspora_. 135 70. Sporidia of _Valsa profusa_. 135 71. Sporidia of _Massaria foedans_. 135 72. Sporidium of _Melanconis bicornis_. 135 73. Caudate sporidia of _Sphæria fimiseda_. 135 74. Sporidia of _Valsa thelebola_. 135 75. Sporidia of _Valsa taleola_. 135 76. Sporidium of _Sporormia intermedia_. 135 77. Asci and sporidia of _Sphæria_ (_Pleospora_) _herbarum_. 135 78. Sporidium of _Sphæria putaminum_. 135 79. Basidia and spores of _Exidia spiculosa_. 139 80. Germinating spore and corpuscles of _Dacrymyces_. 140 81. Germination of _Æcidium Euphorbia_. 142 82. Germinating pseudospores of _Coleosporium Sonchi_. 144 83. Germinating pseudospore of _Melampsora betulina_. 144 84. Germinating pseudospore of _Uromyce appendiculatus_. 145 85. Germinating pseudospore of _Puccinia Moliniæ_. 146 86. Germinating pseudospore of _Triphragmium Ulmariæ_. 146 87. Germinating pseudospore of _Phragmidium bulbosum_. 147 88. Germinating pseudospores of _Podisoma Juniperi_. 149 89. Germinating pseudospore of _Tilletia caries_. 150 90. Pseudospore of _Ustilago receptaculorum_ in germination, and secondary spores in conjugation. 151 91. Conidia and zoospores of _Cystopus candidus_. 151 92. Resting spore of _Cystopus candidus_ with zoospores. 152 93. Zygospores of _Mucor phycomyces_. 158 94. Sporidium of _Ascobolus_ germinating. 161 95. Zygospore of _Mucor_. 164 96. Zygospore of _Rhizopus_ in different stages. 166 97. Conjugation in _Achlya racemosa_. 169 98. Conjugation in _Peronospora._ 171 99. Antheridia and oogonium of _Peronospora_. 172 100. Conjugation in _Peziza omphalodes_. 176 100a. Formation of conceptacle in _Erysiphe_. 176 101. _Tilletia caries_ with conjugating cells. 178 102. _Aspergillus glaucus_ and _Eurotium_. 190 103. _Erysiphe cichoracearum_, receptacle and mycelium. 192 104. Twig with _Tubercularia_ and _Nectria_. 193 105. Section of _Tubercularia_ with conidia. 193 106. D. _Nectria_ with _Tubercularia_, ascus and paraphyses. 195 107. Cells and pseudospores of _Æcidium berberidis_. 201 108. Cells and pseudospores of _Æcidium graveolens_. 201 109. _Torrubia militaris_ on pupa of a moth. 243

FUNGI

THEIR NATURE, USES, INFLUENCES, ETC.

I.

NATURE OF FUNGI.

The most casual observer of Nature recognizes in almost every instance that comes under his notice in every-day life, without the aid of logical definition, the broad distinctions between an animal, a plant, and a stone. To him, the old definition that an animal is possessed of life and locomotion, a plant of life without locomotion, and a mineral deficient in both, seems to be sufficient, until some day he travels beyond the circuit of diurnal routine, and encounters a sponge or a zoophyte, which possesses only one of his supposed attributes of animal life, but which he is assured is nevertheless a member of the animal kingdom. Such an encounter usually perplexes the neophyte at first, but rather than confess his generalizations to have been too gross, he will tenaciously contend that the sponge must be a plant, until the evidence produced is so strong that he is compelled to desert his position, and seek refuge in the declaration that one kingdom runs into the other so imperceptibly that no line of demarcation can be drawn between them. Between these two extremes of broad distinction, and no distinction, lies the ground occupied by the scientific student, who, whilst admitting that logical definition fails in assigning briefly and tersely the bounds of the three kingdoms, contends that such limits exist so positively, that the universal scientific mind accepts the recognized limit without controversy or contradiction.

In like manner, if one kingdom be made the subject of inquiry, the same difficulties will arise. A flowering plant, as represented by a rose or a lily, will be recognized as distinct from a fern, a seaweed, or a fungus. Yet there are some flowering plants which, at first sight, and without examination, simulate cryptogams, as, for example, many _Balanophoræ_, which the unscientific would at once class with fungi. It is nevertheless true that even the incipient botanist will accurately separate the phanerogams from the cryptogams, and by means of a little more, but still elementary knowledge, distribute the latter amongst ferns, mosses, fungi, lichens, and algæ, with comparatively few exceptions. It is true that between fungi and lichens there exists so close an affinity that difficulties arise, and doubts, and disputations, regarding certain small groups or a few species; but these are the exception, and not the rule. Botanists generally are agreed in recognizing the five principal groups of Cryptogamia, as natural and distinct. In proportion as we advance from comparison of members of the three kingdoms, through that of the primary groups in one kingdom, to a comparison of tribes, alliances, and orders, we shall require closer observation, and more and more education of the eye to see, and the mind to appreciate, relationships and distinctions.

We have already assumed that fungi are duly and universally admitted, as plants, into the vegetable kingdom. But of this fact some have even ventured to doubt. This doubt, however, has been confined to one order of fungi, except, perhaps, amongst the most illiterate, although now the animal nature of the _Myxogastres_ has scarcely a serious advocate left. In this order the early condition of the plant is pulpy and gelatinous, and consists of a substance more allied to sarcode than cellulose. De Bary insinuated affinities with _Amoeba_,[A] whilst Tulasne affirmed that the outer coat in some of these productions contained so much carbonate of lime that strong effervescence took place on the application of sulphuric acid. Dr. Henry Carter is well known as an old and experienced worker amongst amoeboid forms of animal life, and, when in Bombay, he devoted himself to the examination of the _Myxogastres_ in their early stage, and the result of his examinations has been a firm conviction that there is no relationship whatever between the _Myxogastres_ and the lower forms of animal life. De Bary has himself very much modified, if not wholly abandoned, the views once propounded by him on this subject. When mature, and the dusty spores, mixed with threads, sometimes spiral, are produced, the _Myxogastres_ are so evidently close allies of the _Lycoperdons_, or Puffballs, as to leave no doubt of their affinities. It is scarcely necessary to remark that the presence of zoospores is no proof of animal nature, for not only do they occur in the white rust (_Cystopus_), and in such moulds as _Peronospora_,[B] but are common in algæ, the vegetable nature of which has never been disputed.

There is another equally important, but more complicated subject to which we must allude in this connection. This is the probability of minute fungi being developed without the intervention of germs, from certain solutions. The observations of M. Trécul, in a paper laid before the French Academy, have thus been summarized:--1. Yeast cells may be formed in the must of beer without spores being previously sown. 2. Cells of the same form as those of yeast, but with different contents, arise spontaneously in simple solution of sugar, or to which a little tartrate of ammonia has been added, and these cells are capable of producing fermentation in certain liquids under favourable conditions. 3. The cells thus formed produce _Penicillium_ like the cells of yeast. 4. On the other hand, the spores of _Penicillium_ are capable of being transformed into yeast.[C] The interpretation of this is, that the mould _Penicillium_ may be produced from a sugar solution by "spontaneous generation," and without spore or germ of any kind. The theory is, that a molecular mass which is developed in certain solutions or infusions, may, under the influence of different circumstances, produce either animalcules or fungi. "In all these cases, no kind of animalcule or fungus is ever seen to originate from preexisting cells or larger bodies, but always from molecules."[D] The molecules are said to form small masses, which soon melt together to constitute a globular body, from which a process juts out on one side. These are the so-called _Torulæ_,[E] which give off buds which are soon transformed into jointed tubes of various diameters, terminating in rows of sporules, _Penicillium_, or capsules containing numerous globular seeds, _Aspergillus_ (_sic_).

This is but another mode of stating the same thing as above referred to by M. Trécul, that certain cells, resembling yeast cells (_Torula_), are developed spontaneously, and that these ultimately pass through the form of mould called _Penicillium_ to the more complex _Mucor_ (which the writer evidently has confounded with _Aspergillus_, unless he alludes to the ascigerous form of _Aspergillus_, long known as _Eurotium_). From what is now known of the polymorphism of fungi, there would be little difficulty in believing that cells resembling yeast cells would develop into _Penicillium_, as they do in _fact_ in what is called the "vinegar plant," and that the capsuliferous, or higher condition of this mould may be a _Mucor_, in which the sporules are produced in capsules. The difficulty arises earlier, in the supposed spontaneous origination of yeast cells from molecules, which result from the peculiar conditions of light, temperature, &c., in which certain solutions are placed. It would be impossible to review all the arguments, or tabulate all the experiments, which have been employed for and against this theory. It could not be passed over in silence, since it has been one of the stirring questions of the day. The great problem how to exclude all germs from the solutions experimented upon, and to keep them excluded, lies at the foundation of the theory. It must ever, as we think, be matter of doubt that all germs were not excluded or destroyed, rather than one of belief that forms known to be developed day by day from germs should under other conditions originate spontaneously.

Fungi are veritably and unmistakably plants, of a low organization, it is true, but still plants, developed from germs, somewhat analogous, but not wholly homologous, to the seeds of higher orders. The process of fertilization is still obscure, but facts are slowly and gradually accumulating, so that we may hope at some not very distant period to comprehend what as yet are little removed from hypotheses. Admitting that fungi are independent plants, much more complex in their relations and development than was formerly supposed, it will be expected that certain forms should be comparatively permanent, that is, that they should constitute good species. Here, also, efforts have been made to develop a theory that there are no legitimate species amongst fungi, accepting the terms as hitherto applied to flowering plants. In this, as in allied instances, too hasty generalizations have been based on a few isolated facts, without due comprehension of the true interpretation of such facts and phenomena. Polymorphism will hereafter receive special illustration, but meantime it may be well to state that, because some forms of fungi which have been described, and which have borne distinct names as autonomous species, are now proved to be only stages or conditions of other species, there is no reason for concluding that no forms are autonomous, or that fungi which appear and are developed in successive stages are not, in their entirety, good species. Instead, therefore, of insinuating that there are no good species, modern investigation tends rather to the establishment of good species, and the elimination of those that are spurious. It is chiefly amongst the microscopic species that polymorphism has been determined. In the larger and fleshy fungi nothing has been discovered which can shake our faith in the species described half a century, or more, ago. In the Agarics, for instance, the forms seem to be as permanent and as distinct as in the flowering plants. In fact, there is still no reason to dissent, except to a very limited extent, from what was written before polymorphism was accredited, that, "with a few exceptions only, it may without doubt be asserted that more certain species do not exist in any part of the organized world than amongst fungi. The same species constantly recur in the same places, and if kinds not hitherto detected present themselves, they are either such as are well known in other districts, or species which have been overlooked, and which are found on better experience to be widely diffused. There is nothing like chance about their characters or growth."[F]