CHAPTER XXIII

LAUNDERING AND DRY CLEANSING

“Washing is a necessity, ironing a luxury.” This terse sentence expresses very clearly the relative value of the two large divisions of the laundering process. The thorough washing of clothing is a most important branch of household sanitation, upon which the health of the family and of the whole community depends, for disease is communicable by means of soiled garments and those that are imperfectly cleansed in unsanitary houses and possibly in commercial laundries. The ideal city will have many large and spotlessly clean laundries, where skilled labor intelligently directed will insure clothing as clean as it can possibly be made.

There is an æsthetic element in laundering as well, for good washing methods give a tinted white to fabrics that it is a pleasure to see, and ironing makes a smoothness that is pleasant to the touch, and brings out beauty of design, as in damasks and embroideries. There is an economic feature, too, in that poor and rough methods of work in both washing and ironing injure fabrics and shorten their term of usableness.

“Washing Day” has an ill repute that it does not deserve, for laundering is a science and an art that it is a pleasure to practice, if one has skill. Make it one of the household arts which you must carefully study, and you will find it pleasurable as well as necessary.

=Soil in garments.=——The dust and dirt of the street and house that soil our garments contain inorganic particles of earth, lint from textiles, organic matter from animals and human beings, and also bacteria. The material from our bodies consists of particles of skin, skin secretions, and bacteria, which are collected in underwear and bed linen and towels. Spots of grease and stains may fall upon our outer clothing, and fruit stains affect table linen in particular.

=Cleansing agents.=——Water is the great cleanser, and if it is not available in abundance and used freely, the washing is a failure. All other agents are merely aids to the water or substitutes for it. In primitive outdoor methods, still largely used in some countries, the flowing water is the only agent, and yet the result is fairly good. We aid the process by the use of soap or washing powders or ammonia.

The air and sun are also purifiers, and clothing should be exposed to their action for drying whenever possible. There is a sweetness in air and sun-dried clothing that no artificial drier seems to give. Probably there takes place some oxidation of impurities present in very small amount and, moreover, any bacteria still clinging to the fabric may be killed by the sun’s rays. Heat is a purifier, oily substances being more readily removed by hot water and soap than by cold; and the boiling temperature of water renders bacteria and organic matter harmless.

Some mechanical action that forces water through the fabric is necessary, and the method of accomplishing this is one of the important problems in laundering. We seek a method that will be thorough, that will not injure the fabric, and that will economize the muscular energy of the worker. Beating, pounding, and rubbing are the old methods, the use of a machine the new, and that is the best machine that meets all the requirements of the properly conducted washing process as described below.

The _water_ should be soft and clean. Rain water is a perfectly soft water and excellent for laundering if the cistern is kept clean, and free from the dust of the roof. Lake, river, and well water are sometimes soft. Strainers may be used on the faucets if at any time the water from these sources becomes muddy. (See Chapter V for discussion of soft and hard water.)

Hard water prevents the soap from lathering, and this must be counteracted for laundering. _Temporary hardness_ is removed by boiling. _Permanent hardness_ is not affected by boiling and can be overcome only by the addition of some substance like ammonia, borax, or soda. Only enough of these should be used to allow the soap to do its work, since they may injure fabric and the skin of the worker.

_Soap_ is the most useful of the cleansing agents added to water. It may have been accidentally made in the first place by some housewife who put a greasy pot to soak with a solution of lye made from the ashes of her hearth fire. Heat and alkali break up the fat into two parts, glycerin and a fatty acid. The fatty acid combines with the alkali, giving soap, and the glycerin remains free. Both animal and vegetable fats are used, and different forms of alkali, usually potash or caustic soda, the former for soft, the latter for hard, soap.

In these days soap is much better made in the factory than it can be at home. In the factory the alkali is proportioned by weight, so that as little free alkali is left as possible. Such a soap is called “neutral.” Resin is added, in yellow laundry soaps, and is supposed to aid in forming suds. When there is an excess of resin, as in some cheap soaps, it is hard to rinse out and colors the clothes. Borax is sometimes added to soap, and is useful when the water is hard, but not necessary in soft water. Naphtha or some other petroleum oil in soap increases the cleansing property of soap, by dissolving fatty or greasy impurities.

A _soap solution_ is essential for use in the boiler and in washing machines and is useful for rubbing on spots before washing.

To make soap solution, cut up the soap and dissolve it in hot water, one pound soap to one gallon of water. It should be strong enough to jelly when cool, and may be kept in jars ready to use. Even more convenient are soap chips which come by the barrel, but may be bought at pound rates.

=Bleaching and bluing agents.=——The sun, as it bleaches white fabrics, may be counted in this group. Chemical bleaches are used to whiten clothes, but should not be resorted to unless clothes are yellow from poor washing, as in the end they weaken the fabric. Commercial laundries sometimes use an excess of acid for this purpose. Cream of tartar is a harmless bleach. Javelle water is another household bleach, chloride of lime being the bleaching substance. This is also a good disinfectant.

_To use cream of tartar._——Dissolve cream of tartar in hot water, 1 teaspoonful to each quart. After the yellowed fabrics have been thoroughly washed and rinsed, lay them overnight in a solution of this strength, rinse, blue, and dry in the morning.

_Javelle water._——1/4 pound chloride of lime, 1 pound sal soda, 2 quarts of cold water. Dissolve the chloride in half the water cold, and the sal soda in the other half boiling. Stir together thoroughly, allow the mixture to stand several hours, pour off the clear water with care, and bottle it. Use a tablespoonful of the solution to a gallon of water, and heat the yellow fabric in this mixture after thorough washing, for half an hour, not allowing the temperature to rise above 100° F. Rinse very thoroughly before bluing and drying.

=Bluing= is used to neutralize the slightly yellowish tint of the fabric, when it cannot be completely bleached.

Ultramarine blue is sold in small balls and cakes.

Aniline blue is a strong color, and in a very dilute solution gives a pleasing pearly tint to the fabric, especially when the violet tint is used. Mix an ounce of the blue with one gallon water, and bottle for use.

Prussian blue is to be avoided, since it is a salt of iron, and often yellows or spots the clothes. It is usually sold in liquid form. To test, mix the liquid blue with a strong solution of washing soda and heat. If the mixture turns red, and there is a reddish precipitate, the blue is this salt of iron.

=Starch= is used to fill the interstices of fabrics and give a smoothness and stiffness to the cloth that prevents the rumpling of garments. Both wheat and cornstarch are used for laundry purposes when only the natural starches are available, the wheat starch being better for home laundering, as the cornstarch gives a quality that is too stiff and crackling. Recently, however, the manufacturers have learned to make “thin boiling” starches from corn and have placed on the market a variety of such modifications of cornstarch for laundry use. Rice starch or “rice water” is used for very thin muslins.

_To make starch._——For method of making, see starch experiments, Chapter VIII. The starch must be perfectly smooth, and should be stirred while it is boiling for a few minutes, and strained.

_Proportions._

1. For lingerie, 1 teaspoonful of starch to 1 quart water.

2. For medium fabrics, 1-1/2 to 3 tablespoonfuls starch to 1 quart water.

3. For stiff work, 5 tablespoonfuls starch to 1 quart water.

=Ironing.=——The ironing process is the most difficult art in laundering, and requires good tools, practice, and patience. In the summer it is an exhausting labor unless an electric or gas iron is available. Much energy may be saved in hot weather by omitting the ironing of certain articles. Dish towels, even toilet towels, and soft underwear may be stretched and folded, and are perfectly comfortable to use. Some women who do their own work even fold sheets and pillow cases without ironing.

The smoothing of the fabric is accomplished by heated irons, or by pressing between rollers in a mangle.

_To summarize._——The essential steps in laundering are: the forcing of clear water through the fabric; loosening of the soil and stains by soap and appropriate chemicals, sterilization by boiling temperature, drying and sweetening in the air if possible. The less essential are bluing, starching, and in some cases ironing.

=Laundry equipment.=——We are beginning to realize that a separate room for laundering purposes is an essential in a well-equipped home. Such a laundry will be light and well ventilated, will have washable floors, walls, and ceilings, running water and hot water supply, sanitary tubs and conveniences in the shape of machinery. We shall not have perfect laundries until electric power is available at a fair price. Much is said about electricity on the farm, and the progressive farmer who has his own engine should not fail to use the power for all laundry work. Trolley power should be available, and this use of electricity should be made cooperative when practicable. In a few communities abroad and at home, the power available in a creamery is used for laundering purposes as well.

Where there cannot be a separate laundry, take pains to have the equipment as good as space will allow.

=The tubs.=——If possible, have three tubs, for this makes for economy of time. Enameled tubs are the most sanitary, and be sure that they are white. You cannot tell whether or not the clothes are clean and blued to the proper tint in a buff-tinted tub, which you may be tempted to buy because it is cheaper.

_Round portable tubs_, to be set upon a bench, should be of galvanized iron, which is sanitary and light. Wooden tubs are things of the past, unsanitary and heavy.

=Equipment for forcing water.=——The rubbing board is the old-time method, yet it wears the fabric and wears out the worker, and should be used as little as possible. If still considered necessary, it should be of glass set in wood. The wooden board is unsanitary and the metal board may at any moment develop a tiny crack that will tear the fabric.

Fortunately, many women are learning that the washing machine, properly used, is a great economy of fabric, time, and strength. Many machines are on the market, and we need to discriminate and to select the machine constructed to force the water through the fabric without injury to the fabric, and with the smallest amount of muscular energy and that properly exerted without strain. Of course, if machine power is available, the problem is easy. These many washers may be classed in four groups. One is a revolving arrangement, sometimes consisting of two corrugated boards set in the center of a tub of clothes, one objection being that the clothes are sometimes torn. Another type has a revolving perforated inner cylinder for the clothes, and an outer one for the soap and water. This is much more expensive. Still a third rocks the clothes in soap and water and is very effective. A fourth type makes use of suction.

The principle of cleansing by pressure and suction is used in several machines and hand washers, and these are, on the whole, inexpensive and practical for home work. The work is accomplished by an inverted cone, pushed down on the clothes, and lifted. Such a washer is seen standing on the floor in Fig. 80. The same figure also shows another of this type standing on the table, and still another to be used in the boiler.

Most of these devices can be used with power.

=The boiler.=——A portable boiler is convenient. It should be made of good quality tin with copper bottom and must be thoroughly washed and dried after using.

=The wringer= is of great assistance to good work. It should be a good machine having hard rubber rollers, ball-bearing action, and strong springs at the side. It must be cleaned after using, dried, the pressure loosened, and the whole kept covered.

=The drier.=——If clothesline or heavy wire is used, this must be of good quality, and well cared for. The clothesline should be taken in after each using. A revolving drier is convenient, and may even be used in apartment houses. The steam drier has a rack on which clothes are hung, and economizes space and time.

=Irons.=——The hand iron is heated in several different ways. The old-fashioned iron heated on the stove, and the electric iron are the most satisfactory. In buying hand irons, select those of good weight, for this makes the work easier. Three or four will suffice for ordinary work, and they should weigh from 4 or 5 to 7 pounds. A small pointed iron is necessary for fine work, and for sleeves there is a special, narrow iron. The irons must be kept clean, and perfectly dry when not in use. Wax tied in a cloth is a good cleaner, and should be at hand during the ironing process. A stand is necessary on which the iron may rest, and paper or cloth on which to rub the iron when it comes from the stove.

Electric irons are proving very satisfactory, and although the first cost is high, they should be used wherever possible.

=The mangle.=——Small mangles, used either cold or heated, are now made for family use, and are great labor savers in flat work. Towels and small flat pieces may even be put through the wringer, while they are still damp, with very good effect.

=The ironing board.=——This should be firm, well padded, and covered with clean cloth. The cover may be made to tie on so that it can be easily changed. Ironing boards should be placed in a good light. Boards may be attached to the wall, and these have firm support. In a small room, the board can be made to turn up.

=Other apparatus.=——A hamper or bag for soiled clothes, a basket for clean, pail and dipper, a clothes stick, a large pan, a small and a large saucepan, a teakettle for boiling water, a knife, wooden spoon, common spoons and measures, a sprinkler or brush for sprinkling clothes, a clotheshorse, clothes hangers for waists and dresses. The soiled clothes bag should be washed weekly, and the hamper should have a removable lining also for weekly washing.

Monday and Tuesday are the traditional days for washing and ironing, but the woman who does her own work, or perhaps has a helper, or one maid, may find it a good plan to do no more on Monday than the mending, removing of stains, and sorting. This gives time to make the house orderly, after Sunday, and to prepare food, some of which may last over the next two days. Some of the clothes may then be soaked overnight.

=Order of work.=——Mending, sorting the clothes, removing stains, soaking, washing, boiling, rinsing, bluing, starching, drying, sprinkling and rolling, ironing, folding, airing, sorting, and distributing.

=Methods.=——Mending and removing spots from fabrics are discussed in “Shelter and Clothing.” A few common stains are removed as follows:

_Fruit and coffee stains._——Hold the spotted fabric tightly over a bowl and pour boiling water through it. Of course, remove stains at once if possible.

_Peach stains_ are removed by Javelle water. Apply a few drops and pour boiling water through at once.

_Cocoa and chocolate stains_ are helped by borax, and by soap and cold water.

_Ink._——Liquid ink removers provided for the library table are convenient. Wet the spot, use 1, dry with a blotter, and use 2, and rinse at once. The same thing is done by wetting, applying an oxalic acid solution first, then Javelle water and rinsing.

_Blood stains_ are removed by soaking in lukewarm water, and washing in a soap solution with a little ammonia and kerosene, or with a naphtha soap.

=Sorting.=——Separate the fabrics, wool from cotton and so on, and colored cotton from white; also separate body linen from bed linen and from table linen.

=Soaking.=——This hastens the process since it loosens dirt, and one laboratory experiment seemed to show that soaked clothes are freer from bacteria, than those that are not.

Shrinkable fabrics cannot be soaked. Body and table linen should be soaked separately. The water should be cold, softened with a little ammonia.

=Washing.=——Wash woolens and silk underwear first, in warm, not hot, soap suds, wring out, rinse, and hang to dry. Use a white, neutral soap. Have the same temperature for both washing and rinsing. Boiling water shrinks wool, and yellows silk. Hand-knit wool, as shawls and jackets, stretch in drying. If dried in a bag or pillow case, this is partly obviated, or lay them on a pad on the table.

Prepare hot water in the tub, with dissolved soap in it, either for handwork or a washer. Wash table linen first, then bed linen and towels, and next the body clothes. Soap the articles well, and rub or use a washer. It is well to wash handkerchiefs by themselves, boiling in a pail for half an hour. If one of the family has a cold or influenza, soak his handkerchiefs in a solution of salt and water and perhaps a little bleaching powder before washing and boiling.

Make fresh suds often. This means heavy labor in the case of portable tubs, but clothes cannot be cleansed in dirty water.

_Colored cotton and linen_ articles may be washed last. They should be put first into salt and water to set the color, washed in tepid water with white soap, rinsed thoroughly and hung in the shade, wrong side out.

=Boiling.=——Boil the washed clothes in soap solution for ten minutes. In case of infectious disease, all the patient’s linen should be boiled an hour,[27] and of course exposed clothing is kept separate through the whole process.

=Rinsing.=——This must be thorough and two or three waters must be used. This is the stage where many laundresses fail. The suction washers are very useful here.

=Wringing.=——This must take place between every two stages of the process.

=Bluing.=——Add the bluing solution to clean water to the desired shade, shake each piece, put it through the water, and wring out at once. Do not use bluing in excess.

=Starching.=——Next the fabrics that need a little thin starch may be starched. _Starch_ for stiff collars and shirts is rubbed in at the time of ironing.

=Drying.=——Hang out the clothes, having pieces of a kind together, and the threads straight. If out of doors, hang in such a way that the air will have easy access.

Take down, when dry, and _fold_ lightly in a basket.

_Sprinkle_, roll tightly, and leave them until ironing time. Thin fabrics should be very moist, as they dry quickly.

=Ironing.=——This art must be acquired by watching the expert and by practice.

Shake or stretch the article, and lay it straight upon the board. Iron from right to left, arranging the material with the left hand, and iron with the long thread of the material. Bring the article on the board toward you. Iron first the parts that will wrinkle least, such as ruffles and trimming and sleeves. Embroidery and damask should be ironed on a very soft material like a Turkish towel, right side down. Always iron until the fabric is dry.

All tucks and folds must be carefully straightened, and if ironed crooked, they must be made very wet and done over again. When ironing a waist will you do the sleeve or the body first?

Large flat pieces, towels, and napkins are folded in the ironing. Doilies and centerpieces should not be folded.

Folding is necessary in order to make the garments of convenient shape for putting away. Figures 81 and 82 will suggest the method for some garments.

=Commercial laundries.=——The convenience of these has been suggested already. When we can make them all sanitary, and when methods are used that will not injure the fabric, we can safely put this kind of work out of the house, but at present many commercial laundries are unsanitary and ruin the clothes.

=Cost of laundering.=——We cannot have good service without paying for it, and one cause of poor laundry work is the public demand for cheap work, and this too has its effect upon the laundry worker. The housekeeper often fails to have the laundry ready when the wagon calls, and yet demands a quick return, which also results in poor work.

If you have never done any laundering and expect a laundress to do up fine lingerie at a low rate, it will be a revelation to you to attempt to iron a shirt waist or lingerie dress, and then decide what remuneration you would yourself like to receive. One class of high school girls, after a course of six laundry lessons, decided that a dollar a dozen was fair pay for _ordinary_ work! This is an interesting question for class and home discussion.

=Dry cleaning.=——This is accomplished by gasoline, naphtha, or benzine, and should not be attempted by the city dweller. In the country or suburbs, it should be done out of doors, far from any source of fire. Use a basin or tub, and immerse the article in the liquid, using as much as if water, lifting gently up and down. Rinse in a second portion. A suction washer may be used with large garments. Do not rub the fabric in the liquid. Lift, drain, and hang to dry. Keep the can in a safe place, safety being insured by coolness.

_Powdered French chalk_ may be rubbed into delicate silk and wool, where there is a grease spot, or an oiliness from the skin. Leave for twenty-four hours, then shake, and brush out.

_Ether and chalk_ may be used, but the ether affects some people unpleasantly, and dissolves out some delicate colors. _Meal_ may also be used for cleaning wool, especially knitted fabrics, but it is difficult to shake out, and it needs blowing out on the clothesline.

_Laboratory management._——A few lessons can be given in laundering where there is no complete equipment. Dish towels, doilies, and napkins can at least be washed in dishpans in the school kitchen, and a few irons provided. A few such lessons are helpful at least in developing an appreciation of what good laundering means at home and to the community.

The following order of practical work is suggested, when there is a school equipment. (From “A Laundry Manual,” courtesy of Balderston and Limerick.)

FIRST COURSE

I. Make Javelle water, detergent, soap, and give general notes.

II. Removal of stains. _Wash._ Table linen. 1 tablecloth for every four students. 1 napkin for each student. 1 doily for each student.

III. _Wash._ Bed linen. 1 sheet for every four students. 1 pillow case for each student. _Iron._ Tablecloth, napkins, and doilies.

IV. _Wash._ Drawers and stockings. _Iron._ Sheets and pillow cases.

V. _Wash._ Towels and plain colored pieces. _Iron._ Drawers and stockings.

VI. _Wash._ Nightdress and corset covers. _Iron._ Towel and colored clothes.

VII. _Wash._ Flannel underwear. _Iron._ Nightdress and corset covers.

VIII. _Wash._ Embroideries. _Iron._ Embroideries and flannels.

SECOND COURSE

I. _Wash._ White skirts. _Wash and iron._ Doilies and drawn work.

II. _Wash._ Shirtwaists. _Iron._ White skirts.

III. _Wash._ Knit and crocheted articles and flannel waists. _Iron._ Shirtwaists.

IV. _Wash._ Woolen dress goods, down quilt, and blankets. _Iron._ Flannel waists.

V. _Wash._ Collars and cuffs, child’s dress, ribbons. Finish quilt and blankets.

VI. _Wash._ Silks. _Iron._ Silks, collars and cuffs, child’s dress.

VII. _Wash._ Laces, lace curtains.

VIII. _Wash._ Collarettes, stocks, handkerchiefs. _Iron._ Collarettes, stocks, handkerchiefs. Finish lace curtains.

EXERCISES

1. Why is ironing less necessary than washing?

2. What are the chief cleansing and purifying agents?

3. Explain the difference between hard and soft water. Remedies for hardness?

4. What is soap, and how does it act?

5. Why do we blue and starch clothes?

6. Describe the methods of forcing water through clothes.

7. Why are clothes boiled?

8. What are some of the labor saving devices and methods in washing and ironing?

9. Why must clothes be sorted according to fabrics?

10. What are the essentials of a good washing machine?

11. Make a list of the cleansers and chemicals necessary to have on the laundry shelf.

12. Obtain price lists and estimate the cost of simple but sufficient laundry equipment.

13. Obtain a laundry list from a commercial laundry. Make a list of the articles washed at home, and compare cost with the cost of putting out clothes, estimating fuel, cleansers, labor, and some wear and tear of apparatus.

APPENDIX

_CLASSIFICATION OF FOODSTUFFS_

Elements required by the body

Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulphur Phosphorus Iron Calcium Magnesium Potassium Sodium Chlorine Iodine (traces) Fluorine (traces) Silicon (traces)

Foodstuffs furnishing these elements

Proteins——furnish carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and sometimes phosphorus and iron

Fats——furnish carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

Carbohydrates——furnish carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

Mineral matter——furnishes phosphorus, iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chlorine, iodine, fluorine

Water——furnishes hydrogen and oxygen

General functions of these foodstuffs

To supply energy

To supply building material

To regulate body processes

Special functions of each foodstuff

Proteins——supply energy; also nitrogen, sulphur, and sometimes phosphorus for body building

Fats——supply energy in the most concentrated form

Carbohydrates——supply energy in the most economical form

Mineral matter——supplies building material and helps to regulate body processes

Water——supplies necessary material (about 60 per cent of body being water) and helps to regulate body processes

Examples of food materials rich in each of the foodstuffs

_Proteins_ Eggs Milk Cheese Lean meats Fish

_Fats_ Cream Butter Meat fats Vegetable oils Nuts Yolk of egg

_Carbohydrates_ Cereals and cereal products Potatoes and other starchy vegetables Chestnuts Sweet fruits Sugar

_Mineral matter_ Milk Green vegetables Fruits Whole wheat and other whole cereal products Egg yolk

_Water_ Fresh fruits Fresh vegetables Milk Beverages, including water as such

Digestion of the foodstuffs

Having seen what each of the foodstuffs does in nourishing the body, we may now see how they are prepared for the use of the body in the digestive tract.

=Digestion of carbohydrate.=——The simplest carbohydrate is a sugar which cannot be broken up into other sugars. Such a simple sugar is called a monosaccharid. There are two common in foods, glucose and fructose; a third, galactose, is derived from more complex sugars. Two simple sugars united chemically make a double sugar or disaccharid; thus cane sugar or sucrose will yield glucose and fructose, while milk sugar or lactose will yield glucose and galactose, and maltose will yield two portions of glucose. These three disaccharids are the only common ones. Starches, dextrins, and cellulose or vegetable fiber are made of many simple glucose groups, and are hence called polysaccharids. All carbohydrates to be used by the body must be reduced to simple sugars. Glucose needs no digestion therefore, but the double sugars must be split by enzymes into two simple sugars in the intestinal juice, one for each kind, namely, sucrase (sucrose-splitting), maltase (maltose-splitting) and lactase (lactose-splitting). The digestion of starches and dextrins begins in the mouth, where amylase (starch-splitting) changes starch first to dextrin and finally to maltose, and maltase may change a little of the maltose so formed into glucose. In the stomach there are no enzymes acting on carbohydrates, but the digestion may continue under the influence of swallowed saliva for a time. In the pancreatic juice there is another amylase, which completes the splitting of starch to maltose, and then the intestinal maltase can reduce this to glucose, which will be absorbed. Cellulose cannot be digested and simply serves to add bulk to the diet.

=Digestion of fat.=——A fat is made up of two parts, one a fatty acid, the other glycerol. Fat cannot be absorbed by the body until it is split into these two parts. A fat splitting enzyme is called a lipase. There is none in the mouth; one in the stomach works only on fat in the state of emulsion; the most powerful is found in the pancreatic juice. Since fat cannot be digested in the mouth nor to any great extent in the stomach, it is bad to have food coated with it, for the protein and carbohydrates will have to wait till the fat is digested away, before they can be digested; that is, till the intestine is reached. This is one reason why pastries and fried foods are hard to digest.

=Digestion of protein.=——There are no enzymes in the mouth acting on protein. In the stomach, the hydrochloric acid helps to make it soften and swell, and then pepsin begins its digestion. Protein, like fat and carbohydrate, can be subdivided into smaller and smaller portions, finally being reduced to a form which the body can absorb, namely, amino acids, of which there may be 17 or 18 kinds from a single protein.

The digestion in the stomach produces chiefly large fragments of the original protein, called proteoses. In the pancreatic juice is a powerful enzyme called trypsin, which digests proteins, first to fragments, next smaller than proteoses, called peptones, and finally breaks these peptones into amino acids. In the intestinal juice is another enzyme called erepsin, which also forms amino acids from proteoses and peptones, thus finishing any digestion of protein left incomplete by the trypsin.

Fate of the absorbed foodstuffs

Carbohydrates, absorbed as glucose or other monosaccharids, are carried by the portal blood to the liver, and thence passed into the blood, to be burned in the muscles, if needed for fuel, or stored temporarily in the liver and muscles as glycogen (a polysaccharid yielding glucose) for future conversion to sugar when required as fuel.

Fats, passing through the intestinal wall as fatty acids and glycerol, enter the lymph largely as fat again, and finally pass to the blood to be burned in the muscles for fuel, or to be stored as fat until needed.

Proteins pass into the blood as amino acids. Those needed for building material are taken up by the cells (especially cells of the muscles) and those not required for this purpose are freed from their nitrogen (in the liver or muscles) and then burned for fuel.

For a fuller discussion of the fate of the absorbed foodstuffs see Chapter IV of Sherman’s “Chemistry of Food and Nutrition.”

APPENDIX

_TABLE I_

Edible Organic Nutrients and Fuel Values of Foods

Note 1.——Adapted from Table I, Appendix, “Chemistry of Food and Nutrition,” Sherman. See this volume for more complete list. Also Bulletin 28, Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

Note 2.——E. P. signifies edible portion; A. P. signifies as purchased.

=================================================================== | | | CARBO-| FUEL | 100- FOOD |PROTEIN | FAT |HYDRATE| VALUE |CALORIE |(N×6.25)| PER | PER | PER |PORTION |PER CENT| CENT | CENT | POUND | GRAMS | | | |CALORIES| --------------------------+--------+------+-------+--------+------- Apples E. P.| .4 | .5 | 14.2 | 235 | 159 A. P.| .3 | .3 | 10.8 | 214 | 212 Asparagus, fresh A. P.| 1.8 | .2 | 3.3 | 100 | 450 cooked A. P.| 2.1 | 3.3 | 2.2 | 213 | 213 Bacon, smoked E. P.| 10.5 | 64.8 | ———— | 2840 | 16 A. P.| 9.5 | 59.4 | ———— | 2372 | 19 Bananas E. P.| 1.3 | .6 | 22.0 | 447 | 101 A. P.| .8 | .4 | 14.3 | 290 | 156 Beans, dried | 22.5 | 1.8 | 59.6 | 1565 | 29 lima, dried | 18.1 | 1.5 | 65.9 | 1586 | 29 string, fresh E. P.| 2.3 | .3 | 7.4 | 184 | 241 A. P.| 2.1 | .3 | 6.9 | 176 | 259 baked, canned | 6.9 | 2.5 | 19.6 | 583 | 78 Beef | | | | | fore quarter, lean E. P.| 18.9 | 12.2 | ———— | 842 | 54 A. P.| 14.7 | 9.5 | ———— | 655 | 69 hind quarter, lean E. P.| 20.0 | 13.4 | ———— | 907 | 50 A. P.| 16.7 | 11.2 | ———— | 757 | 60 porterhouse steak E. P.| 21.9 | 20.4 | ———— | 1230 | 37 A. P.| 19.1 | 17.9 | ———— | 1077 | 42 roast A. P.| 22.3 | 28.6 | ———— | 1576 | 29 round, lean E. P.| 21.3 | 7.9 | ———— | 694 | 64 sirloin steak E. P.| 18.9 | 18.5 | ———— | 1099 | 41 A. P.| 16.5 | 16.1 | ———— | 960 | 48 Beets, cooked E. P.| 2.3 | .1 | 7.4 | 180 | 252 Bluefish E. P.| 19.4 | 1.2 | ———— | 402 | 113 Bread, graham | 8.9 | 1.8 | 52.1 | 1189 | 38 toasted | 11.5 | 1.6 | 61.2 | 1385 | 33 white, homemade | 9.1 | 1.6 | 53.3 | 1199 | 38 average | 9.2 | 1.3 | 53.1 | 1182 | 38 whole wheat | 9.7 | .9 | 49.7 | 1113 | 41 Butter | 1.0 | 85.0 | ———— | 3491 | 13 Cabbage E. P. | 1.6 | .3 | 5.6 | 143 | 317 A. P. | 1.4 | .2 | 4.8 | 121 | 376 Carrots, fresh E. P. | 1.1 | .4 | 9.3 | 204 | 221 A. P. | .9 | .2 | 7.4 | 158 | 286 Celery E. P. | 1.1 | .1 | 3.3 | 84 | 542 A. P. | .9 | .1 | 2.6 | 68 | 672 Cheese, American pale | 28.8 | 35.9 | .3 | 1990 | 23 Full cream | 25.9 | 33.7 | 2.4 | 1890 | 24 Chicken, broilers E. P. | 21.5 | 2.5 | ———— | 493 | 92 A. P. | 12.8 | 1.4 | ———— | 289 | 157 Chocolate | 12.9 | 48.7 | 30.3 | 2768 | 16 Cocoa | 21.6 | 28.9 | 37.7 | 2258 | 20 Cod, dressed A. P. | 11.1 | .2 | ———— | 209 | 217 Corn, green | 2.8 | 1.2 | 19.0 | 455 | 102 Corn meal | 9.2 | 1.9 | 75.4 | 1620 | 28 Crackers, butter A. P. | 9.6 | 10.1 | 71.6 | 1887 | 23 soda A. P. | 9.8 | 9.1 | 73.1 | 1875 | 24 water A. P. | 10.7 | 8.8 | 71.9 | 1855 | 24 Cream | 2.5 | 18.5 | 4.5 | 883 | 50 Cucumbers E. P. | .8 | .2 | 3.1 | 79 | 575 A. P. | .7 | .2 | 2.6 | 68 | 666 Eggs, uncooked E. P. | 13.4 | 10.5 | ———— | 672 | 68 A. P. | 11.9 | 9.3 | ———— | 594 | 76 Farina | 11.0 | 1.4 | 76.3 | 1640 | 28 Figs, dried | 4.3 | .3 | 74.2 | 1437 | 32 Flour, wheat, average | | | | | high & med. grades | 11.4 | 1.0 | 75.1 | 1610 | 28 Fowls E. P. | 19.3 | 16.3 | ———— | 1017 | 45 A. P. | 13.7 | 12.3 | ———— | 752 | 60 Gelatin | 91.4 | .1 | ———— | 1660 | 27 Grapes E. P. | 1.3 | 1.6 | 19.2 | 437 | 104 A. P. | 1.0 | 1.2 | 14.4 | 328 | 138 Haddock E. P. | 17.2 | .3 | ———— | 324 | 140 A. P. | 8.4 | .2 | ———— | 160 | 283 Ham, fresh, lean E. P. | 25.0 | 14.4 | ———— | 1042 | 44 A. P. | 24.8 | 14.2 | ———— | 1030 | 44 Hominy | 8.3 | .6 | 79.0 | 1609 | 28 Honey | .4 | ———— | 81.2 | 1481 | 31 Kumyss | 2.8 | 2.1 | 5.4 | 234 | 194 Lamb, chops, broiled E. P.| 21.7 | 29.9 | ———— | 1614 | 28 leg, roast | 19.7 | 12.7 | ———— | 876 | 52 Lemons E. P.| 1.0 | .7 | 8.5 | 201 | 226 A. P.| .7 | .5 | 5.9 | 140 | 323 Lettuce E. P.| 1.2 | .3 | 2.9 | 87 | 525 A. P.| 1.0 | .2 | 2.5 | 72 | 633 Lobster, whole E. P.| 16.4 | 1.8 | .4 | 379 | 120 A. P.| 5.9 | .7 | .2 | 139 | 326 Macaroni | 13.4 | .9 | 74.1 | 1625 | 28 Milk, condensed, | | | | | sweetened | 8.8 | 8.3 | 54.1 | 1480 | 31 skimmed | 3.4 | .3 | 5.1 | 167 | 273 whole | 3.3 | 4.0 | 5.0 | 314 | 145 Mutton, fore quarter E. P.| 15.6 | 30.9 | ———— | 1543 | 29 A. P.| 12.3 | 24.5 | ———— | 1223 | 37 hind quarter E. P.| 16.7 | 28.1 | ———— | 1450 | 31 A. P.| 13.8 | 23.2 | ———— | 1197 | 38 Oatmeal | 16.1 | 7.2 | 67.5 | 1811 | 25 Olives, green E. P.| 1.1 | 27.6 | 11.6 | 1357 | 33 Onions, fresh E. P.| 1.6 | .3 | 9.9 | 220 | 206 A. P.| 1.4 | .3 | 8.9 | 199 | 228 Oranges E. P.| .8 | .2 | 11.6 | 233 | 195 A. P.| .6 | .1 | 8.5 | 169 | 268 Oysters E. P.| 6.2 | 1.2 | 3.7 | 228 | 199 Pea soup, canned A. P.| 3.6 | .7 | 7.6 | 232 | 196 Peaches, fresh E. P.| .7 | .1 | 9.4 | 188 | 242 A. P.| .5 | .1 | 7.7 | 153 | 297 Peas, canned A. P.| 3.6 | .2 | 9.8 | 252 | 180 green E. P.| 7.0 | .5 | 16.9 | 454 | 100 Pies, apple | 3.1 | 9.8 | 42.8 | 1233 | 37 squash | 4.4 | 8.4 | 21.7 | 817 | 56 Potato chips A. P.| 6.8 | 39.8 | 46.7 | 2598 | 17 Potatoes, white, raw E. P.| 2.2 | .1 | 18.4 | 378 | 120 A. P.| 1.8 | .1 | 14.7 | 302 | 149 sweet, raw E. P.| 1.8 | .7 | 27.4 | 558 | 81 A. P.| 1.4 | .6 | 21.9 | 447 | 102 Prunes, dried E. P.| 2.1 | ———— | 73.3 | 1368 | 33 A. P.| 1.8 | ———— | 62.2 | 1160 | 39 Radishes E. P.| 1.3 | .1 | 5.8 | 133 | 341 A. P.| .9 | .1 | 4.0 | 91 | 488 Raisins E. P. | 2.6 | 3.3 | 76.1 | 1562 | 29 Rice | 8.0 | .3 | 79.0 | 1591 | 29 Salmon, dressed A. P. | 13.8 | 8.1 | ———— | 582 | 78 Shad, whole E. P. | 18.8 | 9.5 | ———— | 727 | 61 A. P. | 9.4 | 4.8 | ———— | 367 | 127 Shredded wheat | 10.5 | 1.4 | 77.9 | 1660 | 27 Spinach, fresh A. P. | 2.1 | .3 | 3.2 | 109 | 417 Squash E. P. | 1.4 | .5 | 9.0 | 209 | 217 A. P. | .7 | .2 | 4.5 | 103 | 443 Strawberries | 1.0 | .6 | 7.4 | 169 | 269 Succotash, canned | 3.6 | 1.0 | 18.6 | 444 | 102 Sugar | ———— | ———— | 100.0 | 1815 | 25 Tomatoes, fresh A. P. | .9 | .4 | 3.9 | 104 | 438 canned A. P. | 1.2 | .2 | 4.0 | 103 | 443 Turkey E. P. | 21.1 | 22.9 | ———— | 1320 | 34 A. P. | 16.1 | 18.4 | ———— | 1042 | 43 Turnips E. P. | 1.3 | .2 | 8.1 | 178 | 256 Veal, cutlet E. P. | 20.3 | 7.7 | ———— | 683 | 66 A. P. | 20.1 | 7.5 | ———— | 670 | 68 Wheat, cracked | 11.1 | 1.7 | 75.5 | 1635 | 28 ====================================================================

INDEX

Abbreviations for weighing and measuring, 61.

Accounts, keeping of, 333.

Account book, 334.

Acetylene gas, 35.

Acid phosphate, 172.

Acids, 12, 13, 356.

Adulterated food, 289.

Agricultural conditions, 280.

Alcohol, 38.

Alkalies, 356.

Allowances, 328.

Almonds, 245, 318.

Alum, 172.

American, ice cream, 262. stove, 40.

Amino acids, 386.

Amperage, 39.

Amylase, 385.

Animal foods, 4.

Apple, 2, 92, 283, 318, 387. baked, 93. butter, 106. jelly, 106. pie, 185. sauces, 94. scallop, 258. stewed, 94. tapioca, 260.

Apples, dried, 96.

Apricots, dried, 96, 318.

Artificial ice, 23, 72.

“Ash,” 6, 109, 112, 304, 383, 384.

Ash requirement, 303.

Asparagus, 4, 114, 116, 318, 387.

Atkinson oven, 42.

Avoirdupois, 60.

Bacon, 161, 163, 318.

Bacteria, 99, 149.

Baked, apple, 93. beans, 122, 387. custard, 256. fish, 236. macaroni, 137. potatoes, 117.

Baking, 66, 174. bread, 201.

Baking powder, 172. biscuit, 178. experiments with, 175.

Bananas, 92, 318, 387.

Bank account, 339.

Bargain sales, 343.

Bathroom, to clean, 360.

Batters, 173.

Beans, 4, 5, 7, 114, 116, 122, 318, 387.

Bed, to make, 358. linen, 352.

Bedding, 347.

Bedroom, care of, 358.

Beef, 2, 210, 387. average composition, 283. corned, 318. cuts of, 210. dried, 283. drippings, 162. heart, 229. roast of, 222. rump of, 318. stew, 224.

Beet sugar, 167.

Beets, 4, 116, 318, 387.

Benzine, 378.

Berries, 92.

Beverage, water as a, 70.

Beverages, 13. fruit, 75.

Bill of fare, 309.

Bleaching agents, 368.

Blood stains, 374.

Bluing, 368, 375.

Body building, and regulating, 11.

Boiled, custard, 256. dressing, 252. eggs, 144. fish, 235. potatoes, 118. rice, 133.

Boiler, for clothes, 371. for coffee, 83.

Boiling, 66. at high altitudes, 74. in laundering, 375. temperature of water, experiments with, 72.

Bouillon, 223.

Braising, 66.

Brass, to clean, 358.

Bread, 318. baking, 201. cost of, 190. digestibility and nutritive values of, 190. entire wheat, 204, 305. German coffee, 205. Graham, 388. ingredients of, 191, 198. machine, 28. methods of mixing, 200. milk, 203. one hundred-Calorie portion, 191. plain, 203. score card, 188. wheat, 283. white, 304, 388. whole wheat, 388. yeast, 187.

Breakfast, cereals, 4, 129. plans, 314.

Brick oven, 39.

Briquet, 33.

Broiled steak, 222, 319.

Broiling, 65, 66.

Brooms, 354.

Broths, 319.

Brown Betty, 258. sauce, 164. sugar, 167.

Brushes, 355.

Budget, household, 321. typical, 328.

Buns, 205.

Butter, 4, 5, 12, 161, 318, 388. cake, 181. fruit, 105. substitutes, 161. to mold, 162.

Buttermilk, 99, 147.

Buying, canned goods, 101. fruits, 91. groceries and meat, 286. on installments, 344. sugar, 168. vegetables, 112.

Cabbage, 4, 116, 318, 388. baked, 121.

Caffeine, 75.

Cake, 59, 181.

Calcium, 8, 304.

Calf’s head and brain, 229.

Calorie, definition of, 10. portion. See One-hundred-Calorie portion. protein, 303.

Calorimeter, 10, 298.

Candy, 168.

Cane sugar, 167.

Canned, beans, 318. food, 2. goods, 101. meats, 228. poultry, 228.

Canning, 101, 104.

Caramel flavoring, 257.

Carbohydrate, 6, 8, 10. digestion of, 384.

Carbohydrates, functions of, 383.

Carbon, 8, 55.

Carbon dioxide gas, 8, 98, 172.

Card file, 60, 332.

Care, of kitchen, 30. of lamps, 361. of rooms, 358. of washstand, 359.

Carpet sweepers, 355.

Carrots, 4, 116, 318, 388.

Carving, 277.

Cauliflower, 4, 114, 116, 318.

Celery, 4, 114, 318, 388. stewed, 121.

Cellulose, 90, 385.

Cereals, 126, 305, 318, 320. breakfast, 4. manufacture of, 128. molded, 132. one-hundred-Calorie portion, 129. principles of cooking, 129. ready to eat, 129. uses of cold, 132.

Charcoal, 38.

Check book, 339.

Cheese, 4, 154, 283, 318, 388. cost of, 155. cottage, 154, 156. crackers, 156. one-hundred-Calorie portion, 155. principles of cooking, 156.

Chemical elements in body, 383.

Chestnuts, 245, 318.

Chicken, 318. broilers, 388. fricassee, 228. pie, 186. roast, 227. salad, 252.

Chili sauce, 125.

Chinaware, 268.

Chocolate, 14, 75, 76, 81, 318, 388. cornstarch, 135. filling, 182. sauce, 257. stains, 374.

Clam chowder, 242.

Clams, 238. small, raw, 242.

Cleaning, agents, 366. and polishing, 357. bathroom, 360. cloths, 356. dry, 378. equipment, 354. fabrics, 357. materials, 354, 356. methods of, 357. rugs, 357. toilet, 360. weekly, 359.

Clean milk, 149.

Clothing, expenditure for, 326. purchasing of, 345.

Coal, 34. fire, to make, 46. oil, 37. range, 45.

Cocoa, 14, 75, 76, 318, 388. iced, 85. shells, 81. stains, 374. to make, 81.

Coddled eggs, 143.

Coddling, 66.

Codfish, 318. balls, 237. creamed, 237.

Coffee, 75, 77. iced, 85. pots, 83. stains, 374. to make, 82.

Cake, 35.

Cold storage, 2. eggs, 140.

Coloring substances, 13.

Colors in textiles, 350.

Commercial laundries, 377.

Composition of foods, charts, 90, 109, 128, 140, 149, 161, 166, 190, 218, 233, 245. tables, 7, 191, 193, 283, 302, 384, 387-390. See also under name of each food.

Condensed milk, 153.

Consumers’ League, 344.

Cooker, fireless, 43. steam, 44.

Cookery, principles of, 54, 143. vegetable, 109.

Cookies, 179.

Cooking, apparatus, 39. care of food after, 67. principles of, 54. processes, 64. utensils, 25. water in, 72.

Copper, to clean, 358.

Corn, canned, 318. green, 116, 388. oil, 248. products, 133.

Corn meal, 318, 388. mush, 132.

Cornstarch, 318. chocolate, 135.

Cost, of dietary, 315. of electricity, 39. of food, 278, 282, 315. See also under each food. of food, relative, home and shop products, 281. of food, table of comparative, 283. of fuels, 35, 36, 37. of laundering, 377.

Cottage cheese, 154, 156.

Cottonseed oil, 248, 318.

Course of laundry work, 379.

Courses, number of, 276.

Crabs, 240. to prepare, 243.

Crackers, 318, 388.

Cream, 4, 161, 318, 388. of tartar, 172, 368. of tomato, 124. soups, 123. tapioca, 259. to whip, 162.

Creamed codfish, 237. oysters, 242.

Croquettes, 226.

Croutons, 125, 207.

Crumbs, to butter, 236.

Cucumbers, 318, 388.

Cupboards, 20.

Curds, 5.

Currant jelly, 107.

Custard, 12. rennet, 152.

Custards, 256.

Cutlery, 270.

Cuts of meat, 210.

Damask, 347.

Dates, 318.

Decorations for the table, 272.

Deep-fat frying, 66, 120, 162.

Demand and supply of food, 279.

Deodorizers, 356.

Design in linens, 346.

Desserts, 247, 254.

Dextrin, 55.

Diet for growth, 304.

Dietaries, 295, 310.

Dietary, cost of the, 315.

Digestion, of carbohydrate, 384. of fat, 385. of protein, 385.

Dining room, to clean, 359.

Dinner plans, 315.

Disaccharids, 384.

Dishes, 352.

Dishwashing, 31.

Disinfectant, 356.

Division, of income, 321. of labor, 354.

Dover egg beater, 27.

Dressings, salad, 248.

Dried fruits, 95.

Drier for clothes, 371.

Drip coffee pot, 83.

Dry cleaning, 378.

Drying, 102, 107.

Dumplings, 225.

Economy, of fuel, 33. of milk, 150. See Cost.

Eggs, 4, 283, 304, 305, 318, 388. beaten, 142. boiled, 144. coddled, 143. composition and cost of, 140. digestibility of, 141. experiment with, 143. jellied, 143. one-hundred-Calorie portion, 140. poached, 144. principles of cookery, 143. raw, 142, 388. scrambled, 144. structure of, 138.

Eggnogs, 319.

Electric, apparatus, 50. irons, 373.

Electricity, 33, 38.

Elements, 8, 383. in the foodstuffs, 7, 383.

Enamel, to clean, 358.

Energy, 9. requirements of adults, 297. requirements during growth, 300.

English walnuts, 245.

Entire wheat bread, 204, 305.

Enzymes, 385.

Erepsin, 386.

Escalloped, fish, 236. fruit, 254. meat, 226. potato, 120.

Essences, 13.

Expenditure, for clothing, 326. for food, 322. for operating, 325. for shelter, 324.

Fabrics, to clean, 357.

Fat, 8, 10, 14, 55, 158. as a cooking medium, 162. digestion of, 385. elements in, 383. function of, 383. one-hundred-Calorie portion, 160. to clarify, 121.

Fat frying, deep, 66, 120, 162.

Fatty acids, 385.

Feeding the sick, 318.

Fiber, meat, 56. vegetable, 56.

Figs, 318, 388.

Filberts, 245.

Fire, precautions against, 362.

Fireless cooker, 43.

Fish, 4. composition and nutritive value of, 233. one-hundred-Calorie portion, 240. preserved, 241. principles of cooking, 242. principles of preparation and cooking, 235. quality of, 233. stuffing, 237. varieties of, 231.

Flavors, 12. vegetable, 13.

Flour, 4, 318, 388. composition of, 191. entire wheat, 197. Graham, 197. manufacture of, 194. mill, 195. patent, 303. spring and winter wheat, 193.

Foamy sauce, 259.

Fondant for French creams, 169.

Food, adjuncts, 12. adulterated, 289. charts showing composition of. (See Composition of foods.) comparative costs of, 282. cost of, 278, 315. definition of, 11. demand and supply, 279. disposal of waste, 68. effect of, 295. expenditure, 322. for body building and regulating, 11. for children, 305. for energy, 9. for invalids, 319. materials, 3. materials, care of, 57. materials, table 100-Calorie portions of common, 302, 318, 387-390. misbranded, 290. non-perishable, 286. perishable, 286. preparation, processes of, 58. preparation, technique of, 56. prices, elements in, 282. problems, 1. purchasing of, 278, 284. quality of, 288. quantities to purchase, 285. ready-cooked, 292. relative cost of home and shop products, 281. requirements, 310. semi-perishable, 286. table of comparative cost of, 283. to keep hot and cool, 266. transportation, 279.

Foods, animal and vegetable, 4.

Foodstuffs, elements in, 7, 383. digestion of, 384. fate of, 386. functions of, 9, 383, 386. in food materials, 384.

Fowls, 388.

French, chalk, 378. dressing, 251. ice cream, 262.

French-fried potatoes, 120.

Fricasseed chicken, 228.

Frozen mixtures, 261.

Fructose, 166.

Fruit, beverages, 75. butter, 105. buying, 91. composition and nutritive value, 87. digestibility of, 90. dried, 95. drinks, 80. juice, 92, 319. one-hundred-Calorie portion, 90. preparation of, 91. preservation of, 96. stains, 374.

Frying, deep-fat, 66, 120, 162.

Fudge, 169.

Fuel, foods, 158. value, unit of, 10.

Fuels, 33, 38.

Functions of the foodstuffs, 9, 383.

Furnishings, kitchen, 15.

Furniture, to clean wood of, 358.

Garnishing the dish, 267.

Gas, 35. natural, 37. burner, 48. meter, to read, 36. stove, 16, 43, 46, 48.

Gasoline, 38, 378.

Gelatin, 72, 255, 388.

German coffee bread, 205.

Gingerbread, plain, 183.

Glass, to clean, 358.

Glassware, 268.

Glucose, 164.

Gluten, 192, 202.

Glycerol, 385.

Glycogen, 386.

Graham, bread, 388. flour, 197.

Grapefruit, 92.

Grapenuts, 318.

Grapes, 2, 318, 388.

Gravies, 163, 164, 222.

Griddle cakes, sour milk, 178. sweet milk, 179.

Halibut, 318.

Halls, to clean, 359.

Ham, 318, 388.

Hard-boiled eggs, 144.

Hard sauce, 259.

Herbs, 13.

Hickory nuts, 245.

Hominy, 132, 389.

Honey, 389.

Horse radish, 12.

Hot-water, sponge cake, 182. supply, 24.

Household, accounts, 333. budget, 321. expenditures, 321. insects, 361. linens, purchasing, 346. textiles, 345.

Huckaback towels, 347.

Hundred-Calorie portions. See One hundred-Calorie portions.

Ice, 72. artificial, 23. box, 16. creams, 262. substitutes, 74. uses of, 74.

Iced, cocoa, 85. coffee, 85. tea, 86.

Income, divisions of, 323. yearly, 322.

Ingredients. See under each food.

Ink stains, 374.

Insects, household, 361.

Installments, buying on, 344.

Invalid feeding, 318.

Iron, 8.

Ironing, 369, 376. board, 373.

Irons, 373.

Jam making, 102, 105.

Javelle water, 368.

Jellied eggs, 143.

Jelly, lemon, 260. making, 102, 106.

Keeping of accounts, 333.

Kerosene, 37. stoves, 50.

Kidneys, 229.

Kilowatt, 39.

Kitchen, care of, 30. colors in, 17. furnishings, 15. plan of, 15. table, 20.

Knives, 27.

Kumyss, 153, 319, 388.

Labor-saving devices, 27.

Lactic acid, 172.

Lactose, 166.

Lamb, 211, 389. chops, 318.

Lamps, care of, 361.

Lard, 162, 318.

Laundering, 365.

Laundries, commercial, 377.

Laundry equipment, 370.

Law, Pure Food, 2, 289, 291. Pure Textile, 345.

Leavening agents, 171.

Left overs, care of, 67.

Lemon, jelly, 260. pie, 185.

Lemonade, 80.

Lemons, 2, 389.

Lentils, 123, 318.

Lettuce, 4, 318, 389.

Linens, bed, 352. designs in, 346. purchasing household, 347.

Lipase, 385.

Liver, 229.

Living room, to clean, 359.

Lobster, 239, 389. to prepare, 243.

Loose-leaf books, 332.

Luncheon plans, 315.

Macaroni, 136, 318, 388.

Mail orders, 343.

Making, bed, 358. chocolate, 81. coal fire, 46. cocoa, 81. coffee, 82. tea, 85.

Maltose, 166.

Managing a gas stove, 48.

Mangle, 373.

Manufacture. See under each food.

Marble, to clean, 358.

Markets, clean, 284.

Mashed potato, 119.

Matzoon, 147, 153.

Mayonnaise dressing, 251.

Meals, balanced, 307. number of, 305. serving, 266. technique of preparation, 265.

Measures, 60, 61, 287.

Measuring, 60, 61.

Meat, 209, 304. canned, 228. composition and nutritive value, 213. cuts of, 210, 211, 213, 216, 217. dangers from, 218. effect of heat upon, 218. experiments with, 221. fiber, 56. gravy, 164. grinder, 28. one-hundred-Calorie portion, 216. pie, 186. poisoning, 218. preserved, 228. soups, 223. substitutes, 243. tough and tender, 211.

Menus, 295, 308, 312.

Metals, to clean, 358.

Meter, to read the gas, 36.

Methods, of cleaning, 356. of payment, 338.

Milk, 4, 5, 14, 146, 283, 304, 318, 319, 389. bread, 203. composition of, 7, 146. one-hundred-Calorie portion, 149. principles of cookery, 152. sherbet, 263. sour, 99.

Mineral matter, 8, 56, 384. functions of, 383.

Misbranded food, 290.

Mixing, methods of, 63.

Mock Hollandaise sauce, 236.

Molasses, 4, 167, 318.

Mold, 97.

Molded, butter, 162. cereal, 132.

Monosaccharid, 384.

Mousse, strawberry, 263.

Muffins, plain, 177.

Mustard, 12.

Mutton, 211, 389.

Napkins, 268.

Naphtha, 378.

National Food Law, 289.

Natural, gas, 37. ice, 72.

Nickel plate, to clean, 358.

Nitrogen, 8.

Non-perishable foods, 286.

Nuts, 4, 243. one-hundred-Calorie portion, 245.

Oatmeal, 318, 389.

Oils, 356. cottonseed and corn, 248. olive, 12, 318.

Oleomargarine, 318.

Olive oil, 161.

Olives, 318, 389.

Omelet, 145.

One-hundred-Calorie portions, 10. bread, 190. cheese, 155. common food materials, 302. cost of, 318. eggs, 140. fat foods, 160. fish and shellfish, 240. foods generally, 387-390. fruit, 90. in meals, 313. meats and poultry, 216. milk and cream, 149. nuts, 245. starches and cereals, 129. vegetables, 113.

Onions, 4, 116, 318, 389.

Operating expenses, 325.

Oranges, 2, 92, 318, 389.

Order in work, 354.

Orders by mail, 343.

Oven, Atkinson, 42. brick, 39. experiments, 176. thermometers, 52.

Oxygen, 8.

Oyster, 238, 318, 389.

Oysters, creamed, 242. raw, 242. sauté, 242.

Paint, to clean, 357.

Pan broiling, 66.

Pancreatic juice, 385.

Parasites, animal, 218.

Parker House rolls, 204.

Pasteurization, 150.

Pasteurized milk, 151.

Pastry, 183.

Patent flour, 303.

Payment, methods of, 338.

Peaches, 2, 92, 318, 389. dried, 96.

Peach stains, 374.

Peanut brittle, 168.

Peanuts, 245, 318.

Pears, 2, 92, 95, 318.

Peas, 4, 114, 116, 318, 389.

Pea soup, 389.

Peat, 33.

Pecan nuts, 245.

Penocha, 169.

Pepper, 12.

Peptones, 385.

Percolator coffee pot, 83.

Perishable foods, 286.

Petroleum, 37.

Pewter, 270.

Phosphorus, 8.

Pickling, 102, 107.

Pies, 184, 389.

Pineapples, 2.

Plain bread, 203. gingerbread, 183. muffins, 177.

Plan of the kitchen, 15.

Plated silver, 270.

Poached eggs, 146.

Polished surface, to clean a, 357.

Polishes, 356.

Popovers, 173.

Porcelain, to clean, 358.

Pork, 161, 211, 318.

Portion, standard, 10. See One-hundred-Calorie portions.

Potatoes, 4, 116, 283, 318, 389. baked, 117. boiled, 118. escalloped, 120. French-fried, 120. mashed, 119. on the half shell, 118. puff, 119. purée, 123. salad, 252.

Poultry, 209, 226. canned, 228.

Preservation of fruit, 96.

Preservatives, 100.

Preserved meats, 228.

Preserving, 101, 105.

Protein, 6, 8, 10, 54. digestion of, 385. elements in, 383. function of, 383. requirement, 301.

Proteoses, 385.

Prunes, 95, 318, 389.

Ptomaines, 100.

Pudding, snow, 261.

Pudding, steamed, 258.

Purchasing, clothing, 345. food, 278, 284. household linens, 346. silk, 347. wool, 349.

Purée of peas, 123.

Pure, Food Law, 2, 289, 291. starches, 134. Textile Law, 345.

Quinces, 95.

Radishes, 389.

Raisins, 318, 390.

Raspberry ice, 263.

Reading the gas meter, 36.

Ready-cooked foods, 292.

Ready-to-eat cereals, 129.

Recipe, foundation for sauces, 163. how to study a, 58.

Recipes. See under each food.

Refrigerator, 22.

Rennet custard, 152.

Rennin, 147.

Rent, proportion of income for, 323, 324.

Repairs, 362.

Respiration calorimeter, 298.

Rice, 132, 318, 390. boiled, 133. cakes, 132.

Rissoles, 225.

Roast beef, 222, 319, 387. gravy, 222.

Roast chicken, 227.

Roasting, 65.

Rolled oats, 318.

Rolling table, 20.

Rolls, Parker House, 204.

Rooms, care of, 357.

Rugs, to cleanse, 357.

Salad, 247.

Salmon, 233, 318, 390.

Salt, 12.

Sandwich, 207.

Sardines, 318.

Sauce, foundation recipe for, 163.

Sauce, Mock Hollandaise, 236. tomato, 164, 225. white, 164.

Sauces, 259. apple, 94. brown, 164. chili, 125. chocolate, 257.

Sausage, 318.

Sauté, 66.

Sautéd oysters, 242.

Savings, 328.

Scallops, 239, 318.

Scrambled egg, 144.

Season of fish, 234.

Semi-perishable foods, 286.

Serving, 274.

Serving meals, 266.

Setting the table, 270.

Shad, 233, 390.

Shellfish, 4, 231, 238. preserved, 241.

Shelves, 20.

Sherbet, milk, 263.

Shopping, 342. ethics of, 344.

Shortcake, 257.

Shredded wheat, 390.

Silk, purchasing, 347. test for, 349.

Silver, 352. for table, 270.

Simmering, 66.

Sink, 24.

Sirups, 4.

Skim milk, 147.

Snow pudding, 261.

Soap, 356, 367. solution, 368.

Soups, “cream,” 123. meat, 223. pea, 389. vegetable, 123.

Sour milk, 99, 153.

Spaghetti, 136.

Spices, 13.

Spinach, 318, 390.

Sponge cake, 182.

Spring wheat, 193.

Squash, 112, 116, 390.

Stains, 374.

Standard of good bread, 187.

Standard portions 10. See One-hundred-Calorie portions.

Starch, 4, 55, 369. experiments, 135. granule, 134.

Starches, one-hundred-Calorie portions, 129. pure, 134.

Starching, 375.

Steak, broiled, 222, 319. porterhouse, 283, 387. round, 318. sirloin, 387.

Steam cooker, 44.

Steamed pudding, 258.

Steaming, 66.

Stew, beef, 224.

Stewed, apple, 94. celery, 121.

Stewing, 66.

Stove, American, 40. gas, 16, 43, 46.

Stoves, kerosene, 50.

Strawberries, 390.

Strawberry mousse, 263.

Studying a recipe, 58.

Stuffed tomato salad, 253.

Stuffing, fish, 237. for fowl, 228.

Succotash, 390.

Sucrose, 166.

Suet, 318.

Sugar, 4, 12, 55, 164, 166, 167, 318, 390. of milk, 6. principles of cooking, 168.

Sulphur, 8.

Sweetbreads, 229.

Sweet, oil, 161. potatoes, 318.

Tablecloths, 268.

Table, decorations, 272. dining-room, 267. kitchen, 20. of comparative cost of food, 283. of composition of foods, 387-390.

Table, setting the, 270. waiting on the, 272.

Tannin, 75.

Tapioca, 318. puddings, 259.

Tea, 75. iced, 86. to make, 85.

Technique of food preparation, 56.

Test for silk, 349.

Textiles, colors in, 349. household, 345.

Theine, 75.

Theobromine, 75.

Thermometers, oven, 52.

Toast, 56, 206, 388.

Toasting, 65.

Toilet, to clean, 360.

Tomato, 116, 318, 390. salad, stuffed, 253. sauce, 164, 225. soup, 124.

Towels, 347, 352.

Trading stamps, 343.

Transportation of food, 279.

Trypsin, 385.

Tubs, laundry, 370.

Turkey, 390.

Turnips, 116, 318, 390.

Typical budgets, 328.

Unit of fuel value, 10.

Utensils, 25. list of, 28. materials used in, 26. patterns of, 27.

Vacuum cleaners, 355.

Vanilla, 12.

Veal, 211, 318, 390.

Vegetable, cookery, 109. fiber, 56. flavors, 13. foods, 4. soups, 123.

Vegetables, 320. composition and nutritive value, 109. how to buy, 112. one-hundred-Calorie portions, 113. principles of cooking, 115. quality of, 114. season of, 114. time-table, 116.

Vermicelli, 136.

Vinegar, 12.

Voltage, 39.

Waiting on the table, 272.

Waitress, 274.

Waldorf salad, 253.

Walnuts, English, 245, 318.

Washing, 374. machine, 371.

Washstand, care of, 359.

Waste food, disposal of, 68.

Water, as a beverage, 70. elements in, 383. experiments with the boiling temperature of, 72. in cooking, 72. soft and hard, 71, 366, 367.

Watt, 39.

Weekly cleaning, 359.

Weighing, 60, 287. abbreviations for, 61.

Wheat, 193, 390. bread, 283. flour, 171.

Whey, 5.

Whipped cream, 162.

White, bread, 304. sauce, 164.

Whole wheat. See Entire wheat.

Window box, 23.

Winter wheat, 193.

Wool, purchasing, 349.

Wringer, for clothes, 371.

Yeast, 97. bread, 187. in bread, 197. experiments with, 203.

Zoolak, 147, 319.

* * * * *

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Chemistry and its Relations to Daily Life

BY LOUIS KAHLENBERG AND EDWIN B. HART

Professors of Chemistry in the University of Wisconsin

_Cloth, 12mo, illustrated, 393 pages. List price, $1.25_

* * * * *

If the contributions of chemical science to modern civilization were suddenly swept away, what a blank there would be! If, on the other hand, every person were acquainted with the elements of chemistry and its bearing upon our daily life, what an uplift human efficiency would receive! It is to further this latter end that this book has been prepared. Designed particularly for use by students of agriculture and home economics in secondary schools, its use will do much to increase the efficiency of the farm and the home. In the language of modern educational philosophy, it “functions in the life of the pupil.”

Useful facts rather than mere theory have been emphasized, although the theory has not been neglected. The practical character of the work is indicated by the following selected chapter headings:

II. The Composition and Uses of Water.

IV. The Air, Nitrogen, Nitric Acid, and Ammonia.

IX. Carbon and Its Compounds.

XII. Paints, Oils, and Varnishes.

XIII. Leather, Silk, Wool, Cotton, and Rubber.

XV. Commercial Fertilizers.

XVI. Farm Manure.

XX. Milk and Its Products.

XXI. Poisons for Farm and Orchard Pests.

* * * * *

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

64-66 FIFTH AVENUE

BOSTON NEW YORK CITY DALLAS

CHICAGO ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO

Practical Physics

By N. HENRY BLACK of the Roxbury Latin School Boston, and Professor HARVEY N. DAVIS of Harvard University.

_Cloth, 12mo, illustrated, 488 pages. List price, $1.25_

“In preparing this book,” say the authors in the Preface, “we have tried to select only those topics which are of vital interest to young people, whether or not they intend to continue the study of physics in a college course.

“In particular, we believe that the chief value of the informational side of such a course lies in its applications to the machinery of daily life. Everybody needs to know something about the working of electrical machinery, optical instruments, ships, automobiles, and all those labor-saving devices, such as vacuum cleaners, fireless cookers, pressure cookers, and electric irons, which are found in many American homes. We have, therefore, drawn as much of our illustrative material as possible from the common devices in modern life. We see no reason why this should detract in the least from the educational value of the study of physics, for one can learn to think straight just as well by thinking about an electrical generator, as by thinking about a Geissler tube....

“To understand any machine clearly, the student must have clearly in mind the fundamental principles involved. Therefore, although we have tried to begin each new topic, however short, with some concrete illustration familiar to young people, we have proceeded, as rapidly as seemed wise, to a deduction of the general principle. Then, to show how to make use of this principle, we have discussed other practical applications. We have tried to emphasize still further the value of principles, that is, generalizations, in science, by summarizing at the end of each chapter the principles discussed in that chapter. In these summaries we have aimed to make the phrasing brief and vivid so that it may be easily remembered and easily used.”

The new and noteworthy features of the book are the admirable selection of familiar material used to develop and apply the principles of physical science, the exceptionally clear and forceful exposition, showing the hand of the master teacher, the practical, interesting, thought-provoking problems, and the superior illustrations.

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=Botany for Secondary Schools=

BY L. H. BAILEY

Of Cornell University

_Cloth, 12mo, illustrated, 460 pages. List price, $1.25_

It is not essential nor desirable that everybody should become a botanist but it is inevitable that people shall be interested in the more human side of plant and animal life. We are interested in the evident things of natural history, and the greater our interest in such things, the wider is our horizon and the deeper our hold on life.

The secondary school could not teach _botanical science_ if it would; lack of time and the immaturity of the pupils forbid it. But it can encourage a love of nature and an interest in plant study; indeed, it can originate these, and it does. Professor Bailey’s _Botany_ has been known to do it.

In the revision of this book that has just been made, the effective simplicity of the nature teacher and the genuine sympathy of the nature lover are as successfully blended as they were in the former book. Bailey’s _Botany for Secondary Schools_ recognizes four or five general life principles: that no two natural things are alike; that each individual has to make and maintain its place through struggle with its fellows; that “as the twig is bent the tree inclines”; that “like produces like,” and so on. From these simple laws and others like them Professor Bailey proceeds to unfold a wonderful story of plant individuals that have improved upon their race characteristics, of plant communities that have adopted manners from their neighbors, of features and characteristics that have been lost by plants because of changed conditions of life or surroundings. The story vibrates with interest.

The book is, moreover, perfectly organized along the logical lines of approach to a scientific subject. Four general divisions of material insure its pedagogical success: