Part 3

White cedar seeds (_Thuja occidentalis_) 1 Red cedar berries (_Juniperus communis_) 2 False Solomon's seal (_Smilacina trifolia_) 3 Greenbrier (_Smilax tamnifolia_) 1 Cat brier (_Smilax_ sp.) 1 Hackberry (_Celtis occidentalis_) 3 Mulberry (_Morus_ sp.) 2 Fig (_Ficus_ sp.) 3 Pale persicaria (_Polygonum lapathifolium_) 1 Poke berries (_Phytolacca decandra_) 9 Mountain ash (_Pyrus americana_) 1 Service berries (_Amelanchier_ sp.) 1 Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 67 Rose haws (_Rosa_ sp.) 1 Wild black cherries (_Prunus serotina_) 15 Bird cherries (_Prunus Pennsylvanica_) 2 Domestic cherries (_Prunus cerasus_) 29 Domestic plum (_Prunus domestica_) 2 Apricot (_Prunus armeniaca_) 3 Filaree (_Erodium_ sp.) 1 Poison oak (_Rhus diversiloba_) 4 Staghorn sumac (_Rhus hirta_) 2 Dwarf sumac (_Rhus copallina_) 3 Other sumac (_Rhus_ sp.) 4 Pepper tree (_Schinus molle_) 1 American holly (_Ilex opaca_) 1 Black alder (_Ilex verticillata_) 1 Coffee berries (_Rhamnus californicus_) 3 Woodbine (_Psedera quinquefolia_) 10 Frost grape (_Vitis cordifolia_) 6 Spikenard (_Aralia racemosa_) 2 Flowering dogwood (_Cornus florida_) 7 Kinnikinnik (_Cornus amomum_) 2 Red osier (_Cornus stolonifera_) 1 Panicled cornel (_Cornus paniculata_) 3 Dogwood unidentified (_Cornus_ sp.) 6 Huckleberries (_Gaylussacia_ sp.) 1 Three-flowered nightshade (_Solanum triflorum_) 1 Nightshade unidentified (_Solanum_ sp.) 8 Black twinberries (_Lonicera involucrata_) 2 Honeysuckle berries (_Lonicera_ sp.) 2 Snowberries (_Symphoricarpos racemosus_) 2 Dockmackie (_Viburnum acerifolium_) 1 Arrowwood (_Viburnum_ sp.) 1 Black elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 6 Red elderberries (_Sambucus pubens_) 5 Blue elderberries (_Sambucus glauca_) 15 Tarweed (_Madia_ sp.) 1 Fruit pulp not further identified 17

_Food of young of russet-backed thrush._--Before concluding the discussion of this species it will be of interest to note the results obtained from an investigation of stomachs of 25 nestlings of the russet-back taken in June and July when the birds were from two to eleven days old. These were from eight broods, ranging from three to five nestlings to the brood. The percentage of animal food of the young (92.60 per cent) is considerably higher than that of the parent birds.

The distribution of the animal food is as follows: Caterpillars were found in every stomach but seven and aggregated nearly 27 per cent; beetles, including the useful Carabidæ (7.7 per cent), are irregularly distributed to the extent of 22 per cent; other more or less harmful species included five families of (Hemiptera) bugs, 13.8 per cent, viz, stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, tree hoppers, shield bugs, and cicadas; ants and a few other Hymenoptera amount to 12 per cent, and spiders the same. These latter were mostly harvestmen or daddy longlegs (Phalangidæ). The remainder (6 per cent) included a few miscellaneous insects. Only three stomachs contained remains of grasshoppers. Carabid beetles were eaten by the young birds to the extent of 7.7 per cent, which is more than three times the amount eaten by the adults, a remarkable fact when is considered that these insects are very hard shelled, thus seemingly unsuited for young birds.

The vegetable food consisted of fruit (6.8 per cent), mainly blackberries or raspberries, found in 11 stomachs, and twinberries in 1, and two or three other items, including a seed of filaree and some rubbish. From the irregular variety of food in the different stomachs, it would seem that the parents make little selection, but fill the gaping mouths of their young with the nearest obtainable supply.

In addition to the examination of stomach contents of nestlings two nests were carefully and regularly watched, and from these it was determined that the parent birds fed each nestling 48 times in 14 hours of daylight. This means 144 feedings as a day's work for the parents for a brood of three nestlings, and that each stomach was filled to its full capacity several times daily, an illustration that the digestion and assimilation of birds, especially the young, are constant and very rapid. Experiments in raising young birds have proved that they thrive best when fed small quantities at short intervals rather than greater quantities at longer periods. Aside from the insects consumed by the parents, a brood of three young birds will thus each require the destruction of at least 144 insects in a day and probably a very much greater number.

_Summary._--In a résumé of the food of the olive-backed and russet-backed thrushes one is impressed with the fact that they come in contact with the products of industry but rarely. The olive-back's food habits infringe upon the dominion of man but little. The bird lives among men, but not with them. The western form, the russet-back, comes more into relations with the cultivated products because it visits orchards and partakes freely of the fruit. Even then the damage is slight, as much of the fruit eaten is that fallen to the ground. Moreover, while the adult bird is feeding upon fruit a nestful of young are being reared upon insects which must be largely taken from the orchard, thus not only squaring the account but probably overbalancing it in favor of the farmer.

HERMIT THRUSHES.

(_Hylocichla guttata_ subspp.)

The hermit thrush of the subspecies _H. g. pallasi_ inhabits the Eastern States in winter as far north as Massachusetts and breeds from the mountains of Maryland and Pennsylvania and from northern Michigan and central Minnesota northward to Alaska. Several other subspecies occupy the Pacific coast region in suitable localities--that is, in the higher and more wooded sections, as this bird, like all of the genus _Hylocichla_, does not live in treeless or arid regions. In the East the bird is a late fall migrant and may often be seen sitting silent and alone on a branch in the forest in late October or even in November, when the great army of migrants have passed on to the South. While a beautiful songster, the species is so quiet and unobtrusive that by sight it is entirely unknown to many.

Inquiry into the food habits of this bird covered 551 stomachs, collected in 29 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, and representing every month of the year, though all the stomachs taken in winter were collected in the Southern States, the District of Columbia, and California. In the primary analysis the food was found to consist of 64.51 per cent of animal matter to 35.49 per cent of vegetable. The former is mostly composed of insects with some spiders, while the latter is largely fruit, chiefly wild species.

_Animal food._--Beetles constitute 15.13 per cent of the food. Of these 2.98 per cent are of the useful family, Carabidæ. The remainder are mostly harmful. Scarabæidæ, the larvæ of which are the white grubs that destroy the roots of so many plants, were eaten to the extent of 3.44 per cent. Snout beetles, among the most harmful of insects, were taken to the extent of 3.13 per cent. Among these was the notorious plum curculio (_Conotrachelus nenuphar_) found in two stomachs taken in the District of Columbia in April of different years. Two other species of the same genus also were found, as well as the clover weevil (_Epicærus imbricatus_). The Colorado potato beetle (_Leptinotarsa decemlineata_) and the striped squash beetle (_Diabrotica vittata_), with a number of other species of less notoriety, were found in several stomachs. Thus, in spite of the bird's retiring habits, it comes in contact with some of the pests of cultivation.

The ants destroyed--12.46 per cent of the food--keep up the reputation of thrushes as ant eaters. They were taken constantly every month, with the greatest number from May to September; a falling off in July is partly accounted for by the fact that more fruit is taken in that month. Other Hymenoptera (bees and wasps) were eaten to the extent of 5.41 per cent, a surprising amount for a bird that feeds so largely upon the ground, as these insects are usually of fleet wing and live in sunshine and open air.

Caterpillars, eaten in every month and mostly in goodly quantities, appear to be a favorite food of the hermit thrush. December is the month of least consumption (2.75 per cent), while the most were eaten in June (17.08 per cent). The average for the year is 9.54 per cent. Hemiptera (bugs) seem to be eaten whenever found, as they appear in the food of every month, but rather irregularly and not in large quantities. The greatest consumption was in June (9.17 per cent), but July, September, and December show the least (less than 1 per cent). The total for the year is 3.63 per cent. Of the six families represented, the Pentatomidæ, or stink bugs, predominate. These highly flavored insects are eaten by most insectivorous birds often, but usually in small quantities.

Diptera (flies) comprise 3.02 per cent of the food of the hermit thrush. The record shows, however, that nearly all of them are either crane flies (Tipulidæ) and their eggs and larvæ, or March flies (_Bibio_) and their larvæ. Over 150 of the latter were found in one stomach. Both of these families of flies lay their eggs in the ground, which accounts for their consumption by ground-feeding birds. Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) are eaten by the hermit thrush to the extent of 6.32 per cent of its food. While this figure is not remarkable, it is the highest for any of the genus. These birds are fond of dark moist nooks among trees and bushes and do not feed extensively in those dry sunshiny places so much frequented by grasshoppers. A close inspection of the food record shows that the Orthoptera eaten by the thrushes are mostly crickets, which live in shadier and moister places than those where grasshoppers abound. A few miscellaneous insects (0.27 per cent) close the insect account. Spiders and myriapods (7.47 per cent) seem to constitute a very acceptable article of diet, as they amount to a considerable percentage in nearly every month, and in May rise to 20.79 per cent. A few miscellaneous animals, as sowbugs, snails, and angleworms, make up the balance of the animal food (1.26 per cent).

Following is a list of insects so far as identified and the number of stomachs in which found:

HYMENOPTERA.

_Tiphia inornata_ 2

COLEOPTERA.

_Elaphrus_ sp 1 _Notiophilus semistriatus_ 1 _Scarites subterraneus_ 1 _Dyschirius pumilis_ 1 _Pterostichus patruelis_ 1 _Pterostichus_ sp 1 _Amara_ sp 1 _Chlænius pennsylvanicus_ 2 _Stenolophus_ sp 1 _Anisodactylus agilis_ 1 _Tropisternus limbalis_ 2 _Hydrocharis obtusatus_ 1 _Sphæridium lecontei_ 1 _Ptomaphagus consobrinus_ 1 _Anisotoma valida_ 1 _Megilla maculata_ 1 _Anatis 15-maculata_ 1 _Psyllobora tædata_ 1 _Brachycantha ursina_ 1 _Endomychus biguttatus_ 1 _Cryptophagus_ sp 1 _Hister marginicollis_ 1 _Hister americanus_ 1 _Saprinus fimbriatus_ 1 _Carpophilus hemipterus_ 1 _Perthalycra murrayi_ 1 _Ips quadriguttatus_ 3 _Cytilus sericeus_ 2 _Cytilus_ sp 1 _Byrrhus kirbyi_ 1 _Byrrhus cyclophorus_ 1 _Cryptohypnus bicolor_ 2 _Drasterius dorsalis_ 1 _Dolopius lateralis_ 1 _Melanotus_ sp 2 _Podabrus tomentosus_ 1 _Canthon_ sp 1 _Onthophagus tuberculifrons_ 1 _Onthophagus_ sp 3 _Ægialia lacustris_ 1 _Rhyssemus scaber_ 1 _Atænius abditus_ 1 _Atænius cognatus_ 1 _Atænius_ sp 1 _Aphodius fimetarius_ 11 _Aphodius granarius_ 1 _Aphodius rugifrons_ 1 _Aphodius inquinatus_ 9 _Aphodius pardalis_ 1 _Aphodius prodromus_ 4 _Aphodius crassiusculus_ 1 _Aphodius_ sp 11 _Geotrupes semipunctata_ 1 _Dichelonycha_ sp 1 _Lachnosterna_ sp 17 _Chrysomela pulchra_ 3 _Lema nigrovittata_ 1 _Chlamys plicata_ 1 _Myochrous denticollis_ 2 _Xanthonia 10-notata_ 1 _Calligrapha scalaris_ 1 _Leptinotarsa decemlineata_ 1 _Phædon viridis_ 1 _Diabrotica vittata_ 1 _Odontota rubra_ 1 _Odontota_ sp 1 _Haltica torquata_ 1 _Crepidodera helxines_ 1 _Syneta ferruginea_ 1 _Systena elongata_ 1 _Chætocnema pulicaria_ 1 _Psylliodes punctulata_ 1 _Chelymorpha cribraria_ 1 _Opatrinus notus_ 1 _Opatrinus aciculatus_ 1 _Blapstinus metallicus_ 1 _Blapstinus rufipes_ 1 _Salpingus virescens_ 1 _Anthicus pubescens_ 1 _Notoxus monodon_ 1 _Notoxus denudatum_ 1 _Notoxus_ sp 1 _Attelabus rhois_ 1 _Rhigopsis effracta_ 1 _Cercopeus chrysorrhœus_ 4 _Pandetetejus hilaris_ 1 _Barypithes pellucidus_ 1 _Sitones hispidulus_ 4 _Sitones flavescens_ 1 _Trichalophus alternatus_ 1 _Apion_ sp 1 _Listronotus latiusculus_ 1 _Listronotus inæqualipennis_ 1 _Listronotus_ sp 1 _Macrops_ sp 2 _Smicronyx corniculatus_ 1 _Trachodes ptinoides_ 1 _Conotrachelus nenuphar_ 2 _Conotrachelus posticatus_ 5 _Conotrachelus erinaceus_ 1 _Rhinoncus pyrrhopus_ 1 _Onychobaris insidiosus_ 1 _Balaninus nasicus_ 1 _Balaninus_ sp 1 _Sphenophorus parvulus_ 1 _Sphenophorus_ sp 1 _Dendroctonus terebrans_ 1

HEMIPTERA.

_Podops cinctipes_ 1 _Nezara hilaris_ 6 _Arhaphe cicindeloides_ 1 _Corimelæna denudata_ 1 _Myodocha serripes_ 2

ORTHOPTERA.

_Amblycorypha rotundifolia_ 1 _Œcanthus niveus_ 1

_Vegetable food._--The vegetable diet of the hermit thrush consists largely of fruit, as with most birds of this group. As might be expected of a bird of such retiring habits, but little of the fruit eaten can be classed as cultivated. In September 5.45 per cent was so considered, but in most months the quantity was small, and in March, April, and May was completely wanting. The total for the year as found in 17 stomachs is 1.20 per cent. One stomach contained strawberries, one grapes, one figs, one currants, two apples, and the rest _Rubus_ fruit, i. e., blackberries or raspberries. These last as well as the strawberries were probably wild. Of the wild fruit (26.19 per cent) 46 species were identified with a reasonable degree of certainty in 243 stomachs. A few seeds, ground-up vegetable matter not further identified, and rubbish make up the rest of the vegetable food (8.10 per cent). Among the seeds were some of the various species of poisonous _Rhus_. These were found in 18 stomachs, mostly from California. The dissemination of these seeds is unfortunate from the standpoint of husbandry, but many birds engage in it, as the waxy coating of the seeds is nutritious, especially in winter, when fruit and insects are not easily obtainable.

Following is a list of the components of the vegetable food so far as identified, and the number of stomachs in which found:

Cedar berries (_Juniperus virginiana_) 2 False Solomon's seal (_Smilacina racemosa_) 4 False spikenard (_Smilacina_ sp.) 1 Greenbrier (_Smilax walteri_) 2 Cat brier (_Smilax bona-nox_) 2 Laurel-leaved greenbrier (_Smilax laurifolia_) 1 Other greenbriers (_Smilax_ sp.) 11 Wax myrtle (_Myrica cerifera_) 1 Bayberries (_Myrica carolinensis_) 7 Chinquapin (_Castanea pumila_) 1 Western hackberries (_Celtis occidentalis_) 5 Other hackberries (_Celtis_ sp.) 3 Figs (_Ficus_ sp.) 1 Mulberries (_Morus_ sp.) 1 Mistletoe berries (_Phoradendron villosum_) 2 Poke berries (_Phytolacca decandra_) 16 Miner's lettuce (_Montia perfoliata_) 1 Sassafras berries (_Sassafras varifolium_) 2 Spice berries (_Benzoin æstivale_) 1 Currants (_Ribes_ sp.) 3 Sweet gum (_Liquidambar styraciflua_) 2 Chokeberries (_Pyrus arbutifolia_) 1 Service berries (_Amelanchier canadensis_) 9 Hawthorn (_Cratægus_ sp.) 1 Strawberries (_Fragaria_ sp.) 1 Blackberries or raspberries (_Rubus_ sp.) 5 Rose haws (_Rosa_ sp.) 1 Wild black cherries (_Prunus scrotina_) 3 Three-seeded mercury (_Acalypha virginica_) 1 Staghorn sumach (_Rhus typhina_) 5 Smooth sumach (_Rhus glabra_) 5 Dwarf sumach (_Rhus copallina_) 7 Poison ivy (_Rhus radicans_) 3 Poison oak (_Rhus diversiloba_) 15 Laurel-leaved sumach (_Rhus laurina_) 2 Other sumachs (_Rhus_ sp.) 12 Pepper berries (_Schinus molle_) 15 American holly (_Ilex opaca_) 9 Black alder (_Ilex verticillata_) 12 Ink berries (_Ilex glabra_) 9 Other hollies (_Ilex_ sp.) 7 Strawberry bush (_Euonymus americanus_) 1 Roxbury waxwork (_Celastrus scandens_) 1 Supple-Jack (_Berchemia volubilis_) 2 Coffee berries (_Rhamnus californicus_) 1 Woodbine (_Psedera quinquefolia_) 10 Frost grapes (_Vitis cordifolia_) 2 Wild grapes (_Vitis_ sp.) 1 Wild sarsaparilla (_Aralia nudicaulis_) 1 Flowering dogwood (_Cornus florida_) 32 Rough-leaved dogwood (_Cornus asperifolia_) 2 Black gum (_Nyssa sylvatica_) 2 Checkerberry (_Gaultheria procumbens_) 1 Huckleberries (_Gaylussacia_ sp.) 1 Blueberries (_Vaccinium_ sp.) 12 Black nightshade (_Solanum nigrum_) 4 Bittersweet (_Solanum_ sp.) 4 Goose grass (_Galium aparine_) 1 Honeysuckle (_Lonicera_ sp.) 2 Indian currant (_Symphoricarpos orbiculatus_) 1 Downy arrowwood (_Viburnum pubescens_) 1 Nanny berries (_Viburnum lentago_) 2 Black elderberries (_Sambucus canadensis_) 4 Red elderberries (_Sambucus pubens_) 3 Fruit not further identified 60

In looking over this list one is impressed with the fact that the taste of human beings for fruit differs markedly from that of birds. For example, _Rhus_ seeds are hard and have little pulp to render them palatable or nutritious. They are usually passed through the alimentary canal of birds or regurgitated unharmed, and the slight outer coating alone is digested. In the case of the poisonous species, this outer coating is a white wax or tallow which appears to be very nutritious, for these species are eaten much more extensively than the nonpoisonous ones. The seed itself is rarely broken in the stomach to get any nutriment it may contain. But in spite of these facts _Rhus_ seeds were found in 49 stomachs, while fruits of huckleberries and blueberries, which are delicious to the human taste, were found in only 13 stomachs; and blackberries and raspberries, highly esteemed by man, were found in only 5 stomachs. Next to _Rhus_ the fruit most eaten was the dogwood berry, found in 34 stomachs, yet from a human estimate these berries are distasteful and contain such large seeds that they afford but very little actual food.

_Summary._--The hermit thrush, as it name indicates, is of solitary habits and neither seeks human companionship nor molests cultivated products. It destroys nothing indirectly helpful to man, as beneficial insects, but aids in the destruction of the myriad hosts of insect life which at all times threaten vegetation. While it is not easy to point out any especially useful function of the hermit thrush, it fills its place in the economy of nature, from which it should not be removed.

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Transcriber's Notes

The text presented is essentially that in the original printed document with the exception of some minor punctuation changes and the three typographical corrections detailed below. The original version also had two copies of the Table of Contents. The second copy which appeared on Page 1 was removed. Many of the tables which were presented in a two-column format and sometimes split between two pages were reformatted into one long table.

Typographical Corrections

Page 1 : thrust => thrush Page 10 : COLEOFTERA => COLEOPTERA " : Cormybites => Corymbites

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