CHAPTER VI.

THE EVIL EYE AND THE SCARING OF GHOSTS.

The superstitious dread of an evil eye is to be seen mostly among ignorant people, especially among women. If a boy were to fall ill, they say, "Chhotio (the name of the boy) was playing in the house wearing a fine dress and was prattling sweetly, when that wretch came to the house and her evil eye fell on him" [1140] or "The boy was eating a dainty dish when that devilish woman came up and her evil eye influenced the boy." [1141]

Persons born on a Sunday or Tuesday are generally believed to have an evil eye. [1142]

The evil eye causes its victim to vomit what he has eaten in its presence. [1143]

If a child weeps all day long, or a person finds his appetite very weak, the evil is attributed to an evil eye. [1144]

If milch cattle do not give milk, or if seva (vermicelli), papad (wafer biscuits), pickles, dudhpak (rice cooked in milk and sweetened with sugar) or such other eatables are spoilt, it is believed that the evil eye is at the root of the trouble. [1145]

It is believed that the following objects are liable to be influenced by an evil eye:--

(1) Persons having fine glossy hair, fiery eyes, exquisite form, refined gait, fine speech or good handwriting, (2) good sportsmen, (3), pickles, (4) papad (wafer biscuits), (5) seva (vermicelli), (6) all attractive objects.

If a person falls ill after he is praised, he is said to have been a victim of an evil eye. [1146]

The precautions taken to evade the influence of the evil eye are as follows:--

(1) When children are dressed and decked with ornaments, a spot is made on their cheeks or near their necks with a black pigment or collyrium, as it is believed that the dark colour is an antidote against the influence of the evil eye.

(2) Some efficacious inscription is engraved on a copper plate, which is suspended round the child's neck.

(3) A bead of kachakada is also worn round the neck.

(4) A tiger's nail or tooth is worn round the neck.

(5) An iron ring is worn on the finger.

(6) A lime is worn in the turban or headdress.

(7) An incantation in the praise of Hanuman is written on a piece of paper and put in an anklet which is worn.

(8) A piece of thread of five kinds of silk or cotton spun by a virgin is given seven knots on the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin and worn on the person.

(9) In order that sweet meats and other eatables such as papad (wafer biscuits), pickles, etc., may not be spoilt by an evil eye, a lime, an iron nail or a knife is put into them.

(10) In order that a cot or cradle may not be broken by the influence of an evil eye, a black woollen thread is tied round it.

(11) To prevent dudhpak (rice cooked in milk and sweetened with sugar) from being spoilt, a piece of charcoal is put into the pot in which it is prepared. [1147]

While taking one's meal one should avoid the company of an evil-eyed person, but if perchance one happens to be present, a morsel of the food should be thrown behind him or set aside on the ground as an offering to the evil eye. [1148]

If, in spite of the precautions mentioned above, the influence of the evil eye prevails, the following remedies are adopted to remove its effects:--

(1) The evil eye is fastened or curbed, as they say, by one of the processes described in Chapter III above.

(2) A red-hot charcoal is placed on a dinner plate and covered with an earthen jar. A bowl filled with water is then passed round the head of the patient, emptied over the jar and placed on it with its mouth touching the jar. Next, a scythe is placed over the bowl. The jar, which is heated with the heat of the burning charcoal placed under it produces a hissing sound as soon as it is touched by the water in the bowl, and is said to speak. This process is called Ghadulo and is performed after sunset. [1149]

In some places, it is a belief that the plate to be used in this process must be of bell-metal, and that over the fire placed in it mustard seeds, chillies and salt must be thrown before it is covered with the earthen jar. [1150]

(3) An utar [1151] or sacrificial offering is taken to the village gate on a Sunday or Tuesday.

(4) Milk is passed three or seven times round the head of the ailing child, poured into a black earthen pot, and offered to a black bitch on a Sunday or Tuesday. [1152]

(5) The mother or some other near relative of the child suffering from the effects of the evil eye, puts in a bell-metal cup mustard seed, salt, chillies and seven stones from the village gate, passes the cup thrice round the child's head, puts burning charcoal in the cup, and after it is heated, places it overturned in a bell-metal pot and pours over it water mixed with cowdung, so that the cup adheres to the pot. This sticking of the cup is called najar chonti gai (the evil eye has stuck fast) and is believed to cure the child. [1153]

(6) An exorcist is engaged to wave a bowl filled with water round the head of the patient. He then drinks off the water, and the patient believes that the disease has been drunk with it. [1154]

(7) A handful of salt and chillies is passed thrice round the head of the patient and thrown into the fire. If the chillies burn without giving out fumes of an unpleasant odour, the evil eye is believed to be at the root of the illness. [1155] [1156]

(8) A little dust collected from a spot where two roads cross one another, or red lead and oil offered to Hanuman, a red chilly, an iron nail and grains of adad (Phaseolus mungo) are packed into a piece of white cotton cloth with a black woollen thread, and tied to the cradle of the suffering child. [1157]

(9) A side of a loaf of millet flour is baked by being exposed to fire, clarified butter is applied to this side, and a fine cotton thread is passed round the loaf. Next, the loaf is waved round the head of the ailing child and thrown into fire. If the cotton thread is not burnt by the fire, an evil eye is believed to be the cause of the illness.

Sometimes the loaf is offered to a black dog after it has been waved round the child's head.

(10) If the illness be due to the influence of the evil eye of a woman, she is called in and asked to pass her hand over the child's head. [1158]

(11) In order to avoid the effects of the evil eye, when a child returns home from an outside visit, a bowl filled with water is passed thrice round its head and emptied outside the house before it crosses the threshold of the house. [1159]

(12) The grains of Adad, twigs of the Thor (Euphoria nerifolia), salt and dust are passed seven times round the head of a person suffering from the effects of an evil eye, on the threshold of the house, and thrown away. [1160]

(13) Grains of Adad, twigs of the Thor, salt, an iron nail and charcoal are put into an unused earthen pot and taken to the village boundary with a bowl filled with water. The person carrying the pot and bowl should not look behind either on his way to, or on his return from, the village boundary. The pot is placed on the village boundary, and water is poured over it seven times from the bowl. [1161]

(14) A loaf baked on one side, with seven grains of Adad, seven grains of salt and seven cotton seeds placed over it, is passed seven times round the patient's head and placed on a spot where two roads cross one another. The person carrying the bread should not look behind while carrying it. [1162]

Those whose children do not live, or die in infancy, or who get children with difficulty, give them opprobrious names, as it is believed that objects so named, being considered of no value, are left unharmed both by men and by gods. [1163]

Some people believe that children so named are considered impure by Fate or Destiny, and consequently not molested by her. [1164]

It is believed by some that, as good names attract attention, giving opprobrious names averts the danger of the evil eye. [1165]

Some people throw a newly-born child on a dung-hill and take it back, saying that they found it on the dung-hill, with the belief that a child of such low origin cannot be snatched away from them by Fate. Such children are named Punjio, Unkardo or Kacharo meaning 'dung-hill.'

Some children are named Khoto, Amatho or Jutho, all meaning 'false', with the belief that children so named are considered to belong to gods or Fate, and hence cannot be taken away from their parents by the god of death.

Some people exchange their children for sweets, or offer them to others and purchase them back at a nominal price. Others roll them in the dust and name them Dhulio or dust. This is believed to ensure a long life to the children. [1166]

In some places, a relative of the child's on the mother's side presents it with a necklace of gold beads shaped like large black ants. When the child attains the age of eight or ten years this necklace is offered to some god or goddess. The child is named Sankalio as it wears round its neck this sankal or chain, that is, necklace. [1167]

It is held by some that children bearing contemptuous names are not affected by magic. [1168]

Some weigh the child against corn and give the name of that corn to the child, e. g., 'Kodario', 'Juvario'. The corn is then distributed among beggars, which is supposed to ensure a long life to the child. [1169]

Some make earthen figures of children, call them Ila Ili or Pithad, and carry them through the village on the Holi day (the full-moon day of Falgun), with the belief that by so doing they ensure a long life to the children.

It is related that a carpenter's children used to die in infancy, so he named one of his sons 'Pithad' and he lived. Since then, parents whose children do not live name them 'Pithad'. Some name their children 'Jivo' that is 'Live' with the hope that they may live long. [1170]

The opprobrious and other special spirit-scaring names generally given to boys are as follows:--

NAME. MEANING.

Amatho Useless Jutho False Kacharo Refuse Nathu Tied Punjo Refuse Jivo Live Kalo Black Ghelo Mad Gafal Stupid Valu or Vayali Eccentric Sawo or Siwo Sewed Dungar Hill Ado Useless Bhabho Worthless Malo Bower Velo Creeper Nano Small Khodo Lame Oghad Fool Hakalo Bhukhan Uko Dung-hill Lavo Parasite Jino Small Doso Old Rano Lord (ironical) Bavo Recluse Rupo Handsome (ironical) Mor Peacock Popat Parrot Jado Fastened [1171] Bodho Gobaro [1172] Fakiro Beggar Mafatio Worthless Nago Shameless Bocho Coward Bakor Noise Bow Name of a demon How Ditto. Limbo Poisonous Ganglo Stony [1173] Bhikhari or Bhikho Beggar Vaigrai Recluse Amar Immortal Sidio Negro-like Vasto [1174] Polio or Polo Hollow Kadavo Bitter Bero Deaf Dipo Panther Vagh Tiger Cohampalo Meddlesome Chindharo Ragged Chiko Chuntho Ragged Jinthro Ragged Jalo Davalo Not loved Dendo The croaking of a frog. Dhingo Fat Bodo Bald-headed Rotal Womanish Radio Crying [1175]

The contemptuous names given to girls are:--

NAME. MEANING.

Liri Dhori White Zini Small Punji Refuse Kali Black Ful Light as a flower [1176] Nathi Juthi False Jadi Fat Monghi Jaba [1177] Kadvi Bitter Jivi Live Divi [1178]

Veju, Bhilak, Chichi, Laghu [1179], Mafat (useless), Gheli (mad), Panchi [1180], Dedki, Kukadi and Zabu. [1181]

It is said that in ancient times change of sex could be effected.

Tradition relates that all the children of a certain Solanki king died in infancy, except the last child, a girl. She was dressed in male attire and passed for a boy. When the pretended boy attained marriageable age, he was betrothed to a princess. When the day fixed for the marriage drew near, the king became anxious and went on an hunting expedition to pass the time. On his way back from the hunt he became very thirsty, and quenched his thirst with the water of a pond near which a temple of Bahucharaji stands to this day. His bitch, which was with him, leapt into the pond, and on coming out of the water was found to be transformed into a dog. On seeing this the king brought his daughter and bathed her into the pond with the result that she was transformed into a boy. The king then built a big tank on the spot, which is known by the name of Man. [1182]

In a chapter called Brahmottar Khand of the Padma Puran, which describes the glory of a vow called Uma Mahesh, the greatness of observing fasts on Mondays is described at length. Two Brahman brothers, one dressed as a man and the other as a woman, set out on a journey. Once they halted in a temple of the god Shiva, where lived a woman who had observed the fasts on Mondays. She invited them to dinner, taking them, as they appeared to be, for a man and a woman. The devotion of the hostess was so great that the brother dressed as a woman was actually transformed into a woman while partaking of the meal served to him. [1183]

It is related that in ancient times the son of a certain sage once disguised himself as a girl with the result that he was actually changed into a girl. He was thereafter called Mudralopi and married to the sage Agastya. [1184]

The warrior Shikhandi who assisted the Pandavas in killing Bhishma (who had vowed not to raise his arms against a woman) was at first a girl, and was subsequently transformed into a boy by the boon of the gods. [1185]

There is supposed to be a forest of Parvati in a continent called Ilavrit. Any man visiting it is at once turned into a woman. [1186]

A king named Sudyaman visited this forest and was transformed into a woman. It was only after appeasing Parvati by a sacrifice that he was restored to his original form. [1187]

It is believed that in Kamaru Desha or the land of fairies, children are transformed into the opposite sex by the spell of the inhabitants. [1188]

A belief is current that change of sex can be effected by the performance of the Shatchandi or the prayoga of Rudra, Bahucharaji, Ashapuri and Mahakali. [1189]

It is also believed that change of sex can also be effected by the spell of magic. [1190]

There is a further belief that Yogis by their incantations, and Mahatmas by their blessings or curses, can effect a change of sex. [1191]

The following things are considered efficacious in protecting oneself against evil spirits:--

(1) A sword, (2) iron, [1192] (3) a woollen blanket, (4) fire, (5) a coin in the funeral pyre, (6) a nail of a tiger, (7) a blue thread, (8) the red lead offered to the god Hanuman, (9) a lime consecrated with incantations, (10) five kinds of cotton thread worn round the elbow, [1193] (11) blood, (12) corn, (13) frankincense, (14) salt, (15) water, (16) leather, (17) an amulet of iron procured from a well polluted by the death of some one in its water, [1194] (18) a garland, the beads of which are made of the wood of the Ekal ber (Zizyphus jujuba), (19) the sacred thread worn by Brahmans, [1195] (20) iron nails extracted from a wheel of a cart used for carrying fuel for cremation, [1196] (21) human blood, [1197] (22) a costly jewel.

Amulets are generally used as a precaution against the attack of evil spirits or the influence of an evil eye. They are also used to cure diseases. They are made of iron, copper, tin, gold, silver, alloys of precious metals, or leather.

Chithis or pieces of paper on which mystic signs are drawn are put into the amulets and are tied to the forearm with black woollen or silk thread. [1198]

In some places, frankincense of gugal (Canarium strictum) or loban (olibanum) is offered to the amulets before they are worn. [1199]

Amulets are also made of tad-patras (palm-leaves). They are tied round the arm with an indigo-coloured cloth. [1200]

Doras or threads are also worn with the same object as amulets. They are generally made of five kinds of silk thread, black wool, or red or black cotton thread. The length of the dora must be eight feet, one and a quarter of a cubit or a man's height. They must have three folds and must be twisted seven or twenty-one times. After they are twisted, they are knotted seven, fourteen or twenty-one times, when they become ready for use. An offering of frankincense made of gugal or of loban is made to a dora before it is worn. [1201]

It is believed by some people, that a chiti (amulet) or dora in order to be effective, must not be touched with water.

The dora of the god Kal-bhairav at Benares, which is made of silk thread with seven twists, is tied round the wrist of a patient in the belief that it cures illness.

A janjiro (black cotton thread with seven knots) of the god Hanuman is worn round the arm with the same belief.

Surakano, that is, twisted iron wire, consecrated by the worshipper of the goddess Machhu, is worn by the Bharvads round the elbow or the wrist with the belief that it cures wind.

Those people whose children do not live long put silver anklets round their left legs in the belief that by so doing their life is lengthened. [1202]

An amulet made of a piece of cloth is called dhaga. [1203] It is either a piece of cloth used by a holy man, a piece of cloth containing a mixture of red lead and oil offered to the god Hanuman, [1204] or a piece of cloth in which are wrapped up the things put into an amulet. The dhaga is either worn round the wrist or suspended from the neck. [1205]

Amulets tied to the horns of pet animals such as cows, bullocks, horses, etc., are called damanas. Sometimes they are also suspended from the necks of these animals. They are made of the hides of sacred animals and are believed to protect the animals against the evil eye, evil spirits and magic. [1206]

It is believed by some people that one can escape injury from an evil spirit by seating oneself in a circle or square drawn in and plastered with cowdung. [1207]

Others hold that the circle must be drawn with the point of a sword.

Some maintain that the circle cannot be a protective unless it is drawn with enchanted water, milk or sesamum oil.

There are others who are of opinion that the entry of evil spirits into the circle can be prevented only by calling upon God not to allow the evil spirits to enter it. [1208]

When an evil spirit is expelled from the body of a person, it is buried underground, a circle of water is made round the spot and an iron nail is driven into the ground, in order that it may be imprisoned there. [1209]

If anybody step into such a circle, the evil spirit confined therein takes possession of him, and is thus freed. [1210]

To prevent this, evil spirits are generally confined in secluded spots. [1211]

As the circle drawn by the point of a sword is a protection against an evil spirit, those who go to the burning ground to propitiate or subjugate evil spirits, seat themselves in such circles while reciting mantras. [1212]

After entering the circle, some people recite the name of Hanuman, Chandi or Bhairav. [1213]

Some people, after seating themselves in the circle, make offerings to the evil spirits, while reciting mantras, to propitiate them more easily. The Kali chaudas or the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin is considered a suitable day for propitiating or subjugating evil spirits. [1214]

There are various superstitious beliefs entertained by people regarding omens.

1. If when leaving the house on a visit or with some definite object in view, a deer crosses one's path from right to left, it is considered a bad omen, while crossing from left to right is considered good. On returning home, this omen is read in the reverse way to that just stated. [1215]

2. When starting on a journey, the braying of an ass on the right is a good omen and on the left, evil. [1216]

3. If on leaving the house, a man meets an unwidowed woman or a virgin with a jar filled with water on her head, it is an indication that the object of the expedition will be accomplished. [1217]

4. While starting on a good errand, if one breathes through the left nostril or comes across a person carrying a basket of eggs, it is a good omen.

5. If at the time of leaving for a visit to another town or village, the position of the moon in the circle explaining the position of stars with reference to one's birth-day stars, be in the rear or on the left of that position, it is a bad omen, but if it be in the front or on the right it is a good omen.

The moon in front means fulfilment of the intended purpose, on the right, it confers happiness and prosperity, on the back it causes death, and on the left, loss of wealth.

6. The warbling of the bird bhairav on the right while going out and on the left while returning is a good omen, but the opposite is bad. [1218]

7. A cat or a serpent crossing one's path is ominous of evil; but if either passes on the right, it foretells good.

8. A jackal howling in the evening prognosticates damage by fire to the town or village; its howling at midnight predicts robbery; while in the last part of the night it foretells good.

9. Kag-rashias (expounders of the utterances of crows) know the good and bad indications of the croakings of crows.

10. The wailing notes of the bird Favadi forebode evil.

11. The throbbing of the right eye or side in the case of men and of the left eye or side in the case of women is considered to be a good omen, while the contrary is bad.

12. If the bird holo sweeps the roof of one's house continuously for a number of days, a calamity is supposed to be imminent for the inmates of the house.

13. If a dog barks in front of a man it is considered to be a bad omen. [1219]

A Brahman, a cow, fruits, flowers, milk, pearls, jewels, a prostitute, an elephant, an umbrella, meat, fish, a gun, a bayonet, a mirror, a mongoose, a peacock with its plumage expanded, girls singing songs, band-players and a washerman carrying washed clothes are all considered to be good omens, if one comes across them while going out on business. [1220]

The sight of a king, an armed man, a Dhed, a Bhangi or a Darji is also considered to be an auspicious omen. [1221]

The sight of boys going to or returning from school is a good omen. [1222]

A labourer carrying a load of fuel on his head, a corpse in front, a potter carrying earth on his head or on his donkey, a woman carrying her son, a man carrying molasses, are all auspicious omens. [1223]

A male monkey or a donkey crying on the right while going out, and on the left while returning home is considered to be a good omen. [1224]

Wine and good speech are also considered good omens. [1225]

The sight of a herdswoman, a dog scratching its right side, a cuckoo singing on a tree or a black sparrow is a good omen. [1226]

Fuel, hides, grass, vegetables, a smoking fire, sesamum oil, molasses, a barren woman, an enemy, a disorderly mob, a woman without the auspicious mark on her forehead, a man besmeared with oil, a eunuch, mud, wet clothes, an ascetic, a beggar, are all considered to be bad omens, if one sees them while going on business. [1227]

The sight of dry cow-dung cakes is supposed to be a bad omen. [1228]

The sight of a widow or of a corpse [1229] is bad. [1230]

Weasels crossing the road, dogs shaking their ears, a man carrying a black earthen vessel, a woman with loose hair, a person carrying clarified butter, a man with gray moustaches, a man having no hair on his chest, a cat-eyed man, a person carrying flour, a Brahman without the sacred mark on his forehead are all bad omens. [1231]

The sight of the husk of corn, a man with a medicinal application, or a lunatic, is a bad omen. [1232]

The question "kian jao chho" that is "Where are you going" is a bad omen. [1233]

The mixture of whey, mud and cow-dung, a recluse with matted hair, a man spitting, a cough, and a man with the whole of his head shaved are bad omens [1234].

Similarly, the sight of a drunkard, Adad or cotton seeds is a bad omen. [1235]

A bride stumbling on her entry into the bridegroom's house is said to be a bad omen. [1236]

A dog scratching its left side with his paws, a man riding a he-buffalo or a donkey, two Banias, one Musalman, one male goat, one ox, five she-buffaloes, six dogs, three cows, or seven horses, confronting a man on starting from the house are ominous of evil. [1237]

Some numbers are believed to be auspicious and some inauspicious. There is a book on this subject, in which some good or evil is attributed to each number. One who wants to know the result of the undertaking in hand puts his finger on any number in the book, and the expounder of the science, reading the passage bearing on the number, explains how the undertaking will end. [1238]

The numbers, 12, 18, 56 and 58 are considered inauspicious. [1239]

An odd number is generally believed to be inauspicious. It is for this reason that newly-married girls are not sent to their husbands' house for the first time in any of the odd years of their age. They are also not sent back to their parents' house in an odd year of their age for the same reason. [1240]

The numbers 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, and 21 are believed to be lucky while 3, 4, 8 and 12 are considered unlucky. [1241]

A belief exists that if a company of three start on a mission, the mission is sure to fail. This has given rise to the proverb "Tran trikat ane maha vikat" that is, "Three persons going on an errand meet with great difficulties or danger." [1242]

A zero is believed to be inauspicious. In monetary transactions or bargains, therefore, all numbers ending in a zero are avoided. If such numbers are unavoidable, the sign of 1/4 is placed before them. The number 12 is considered unlucky, to avoid which 11 1/2 is used in its place. [1243]

Some people believe that the numbers 1 1/4, 5, 7, 21, 108 and 1,008 are lucky while 12 is unlucky. [1244]

It is a belief that in the sales of cattle and certain other things if the price is raised by 1 1/4, it results in good both to the seller and buyer. [1245]

It is for this reason that in subscribing to charitable funds people write 401 instead of 400 and so on. But 1 1/4 is preferred to 1 in valuing things. So in all purchases and sales 1 1/4 is added to the actual price of a thing. [1246]

The numbers 5 and 7 are believed to be auspicious, because on starting on a journey from the house one is given five betelnuts as a sign of good omen, while in all auspicious ceremonies seven betelnuts are used. [1247]

Certain days of the week are considered lucky while others are considered unlucky. It is also believed that certain days are auspicious for performing certain acts, while others are inauspicious for the performance of the same acts.

Monday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are considered lucky, while Tuesday, Saturday and Sunday are believed to be unlucky. [1248]

It is a common belief that one should not go in certain directions on certain days; for doing so results in what is called disha-shul or pain caused by directions. [1249]

Going to the north on Sunday, to the west on Tuesday, to the north-west on Monday, to the south-west on Wednesday, to the south on Thursday, to the south-east on Friday and to the east on Saturday is considered ominous of evil. [1250]

According to another belief, Sunday and Thursday are inauspicious for going to the south-east; Monday and Friday, to the south-west; Saturday and Tuesday, to the north-west and Wednesday to the north-east. [1251]

Some people believe that by going to the west on Monday or Saturday one secures the fulfilment of the desired object. [1252]

Many hold that the favourableness or otherwise of the days for going in particular directions varies according to the occasion. [1253]

The auspicious days for sending a girl to her husband's house are believed to be Monday, Thursday and Friday. Sunday and Tuesday are also considered auspicious for a girl to go to her house, but they are considered very unlucky for her to return to her parents. [1254]

It is forbidden to eat dalia (baked split gram) on Sunday, but it is favoured on Friday.

Wednesday is considered to be a lucky day for sowing corn, and making purchases of new articles. Thursday is believed to be auspicious for sending a boy to school for the first time. [1255]

Wednesday is considered unfavourable for the separation of brothers and sisters, but it is considered a suitable day for their meeting. [1256]

It is believed that if a man wears new clothes on Sunday they will be burnt; if on Tuesday, they will be lost; if on Wednesday or Saturday, a quarrel with some one is the result. [1257]

It is considered auspicious to go to a Chamar or tanner on Sunday, to a prostitute on Monday, to a Kachhia (vegetable seller) on Tuesday, to a washerman on Wednesday, to a Brahman on Thursday, to a Bania on Friday and to a barber on Saturday. [1258]

The beliefs regarding the lucky and unlucky days of a month are similar to those of the lucky and unlucky days of the week.

According to some, all the days of the bright half of a month are auspicious for performing any good act, while the days in the dark half are considered favourable for perpetrating black deeds. [1259]

Some believe that the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 6th, 8th, 10th, 11th, 13th and the full-moon day of a month are auspicious, while the 2nd, 4th, 7th, 9th and 14th, whether of the bright or dark half, as well as the new-moon day, are inauspicious. [1260]

According to another belief, the 1st, 6th and 11th days of a month are good, the 3rd and 8th are dates of success (that is acts commenced on these days are crowned with success); the 5th, 10th and 15th are purna tithis, that is, complete days, (meaning that the moon on these days appears full one-third, full two-thirds and completely full); while the 2nd, 7th and 12th are auspicious days.

The 4th, 9th and 14th days of a month are inauspicious. [1261]

Some hold that if the 1st, 4th, 12th, 14th and 30th day of a month fall on a Saturday they are good; otherwise bad. [1262]

The 1st, 13th or 14th day of either the bright or dark half of a month, as well as the full-moon and new-moon day, are considered unfavourable to patients. [1263]

The 2nd, 14th and the last day of a month are considered unlucky. Those days on which there is a panchak--a grouping of constellations lasting for five consecutive days--are very inauspicious for commencing auspicious acts. [1264]

A belief prevails that any one dying in a panchak draws five companions to heaven, that is, his death is followed by the death of four others of the same village. [1265]

A son born on the full-moon day is believed to turn out brave, but is supposed to forebode evil to the parents. [1266]

If a girl is born on the 2nd, 7th or 12th day of a month falling on a Tuesday or Saturday in the Ashlesha, Kritika or Shutbhilla nakshatra, she loses her husband. [1267]

The Mul nakshatra falling on the 1st day of a month, Bharani on the 5th, Kritika on the 8th, Rohini on the 9th and Ashlesha on the 10th, has an effect like a volcano. A girl born on the 1st, 6th or 11th day of a month falling on a Saturday, Tuesday or Sunday in the Kritika or Mrigshar nakshatra is like poison. She is supposed to cause the death of herself, her husband, or all the members of her father's family. [1268]

Some of the Hindu holidays are considered auspicious for performing certain deeds, while inauspicious for performing certain others. [1269]

The ceremonies described below are performed to help the spirit to the other world.

When a man is on the point of death the floor is cow-dunged and an offering of sesamum seeds, Durva grass (cynodon dactylon) and Java (barley) is made to the deities. Next, water of the Ganges or the Jumna is dropped into the mouth of the dying man and the name of Ram is whispered in his ear, as this is believed to turn his consciousness to God and thus facilitate his way to the other world.

When a patient is convinced that his case is hopeless, he distributes money or other valuable articles among Brahmans, as this is believed to make his way to heaven easy.

When life is extinct, the corpse is placed on the cow-dunged floor and then carried on a bier to the burning ground with the cries of "Shri Ram", "Ram", "Ram nam satya hai", [1270] or "Jaya Shri Krishna". In the fuel with which it is burnt is put Tulsi (sweet basil), Pipal and sandal wood and cocoanuts. The bones and ashes are collected and preserved, to be thrown into the Damodar kund, (pool of water) at Gaya or other holy waters. For three days after death, holy water and milk is offered to the spirit of the deceased. On the 10th, 11th and 12th day after death, on all the days of every month in the first year corresponding to the day of death, and on every anniversary of the death, Shraddha is performed. Shraddha is also performed annually on the day corresponding to the day of death in the dark half of the month of Bhadrapad.

The ceremonies mentioned above are believed to make the passage of the soul to the other world easy. For his final emancipation a man must renounce all pleasures of the senses and all egotism. [1271]

Giving alms to the poor, holding recitations of the Bhagvat, performing the Vishnu Yag, Gayatri-purashcharan and the Chandrayan vrat are also believed to make the passage of the soul to heaven easy. [1272]

In order that the departing spirit may meet with no obstruction on the way, cows, articles of dress, shoes and food are presented to a Brahman for one year after death. [1273]

Places for offering water to passers by, and houses in which to feed the needy, are also established by well-to-do people with the same object. [1274]

The gift of sacks for holding corn, of umbrellas, blankets and bedding to travellers, is also believed to smooth the passage of the soul to heaven. [1275]

The performance of the shraddhas and other ceremonies mentioned above is believed to prevent the return of the spirit to this world. [1276]

Observing fasts by the survivors of the deceased on the Rishi Panchami (the 5th day of the bright half of Bhadrapad), the Janmashtami (the eighth day of the dark half of Shravan) and the Ramnavami (the ninth day of the bright half of Chaitra) is also believed to prevent the return of a spirit from heaven. Some worship the Pipal with the same object. [1277]

Reading the Garud Puran for nine days after death is also believed to be a means of preventing the return of the soul to this world. [1278]

Some people believe that performing shraddha in sixty-eight holy places secures this end. [1279]

Daily offerings of rice and water to the departed spirits also prevent them from revisiting this world. [1280]

The same means which are adopted to help the spirit to the other world and to prevent its return also secure its good-will to the survivors. [1281]

Persons living on the banks of the Ganges do not burn the dead, but throw the corpses into the holy water of the river. [1282]

If a pregnant woman dies in the eighth month of her pregnancy, the foetus is taken out by cutting open the womb and buried, while the woman is burnt. [1283]

Corpses of persons dying an unnatural death are burnt in a Gondaro (place where the village cows rest) or on the village common, in the belief that by so doing the deceased escapes divine wrath and is freed from rebirth. [1284]

When a grave is commenced in a certain spot, the corpse must be buried on that spot, even though the ground be rocky or otherwise unsuitable. As far as possible, the corpses of relatives are buried near one another.

The occasions on which the hair is shaved are as follows:--

1. When a boy attains the age of three years, his head is shaved completely for the first time.

2. At the time of performing shraddha in holy places, the head, except the top-knot, and the moustaches and face must be shaved.

3. On the ninth day after the death of a man, all his male relatives younger than himself have to shave their heads, except the top-knot, and the moustaches and chin.

4. On the day of investing a boy with the sacred thread his head is shaved before the investiture.

5. Amongst high caste Hindus the heads of widows are shaved on the tenth day after the death of their husbands. [1285]

6. Gorjis or preceptors of the Atits, Shravaks and Sanyasis have to get their heads shaved at the time of entering the order. [1286]

7. All the male relatives of the deceased have to get their heads shaved on the ninth day after death.

8. Atits and Bavas get the heads of their disciples shaved at the time of admitting them into their order. [1287]

9. The preceptors of the Swami Narayan sect shave off their moustaches every time they shave their heads. [1288]

10. At the time of admitting a Jain to the ascetic order of the religion, the hairs of his head are pulled out one by one until the head is completely bald. [1289]

11. On the occasion of a man being readmitted to his own caste, out of which he has been expelled for some breach of caste rules, he has to shave his head and face by way of prayaschitta or atonement.

It is believed that if the head of a widow is not shaved on the tenth day after the death of her husband, his soul is not admitted to heaven, and the funeral ceremonies performed in his honour bear no fruit. [1290]

The heads of such widows are shaved on the banks of the Godavari or at Benares or at some other holy place in the neighbourhood. [1291]

The spirits of the dead are represented by balls of rice flour or cooked rice, and offerings of water, cotton thread, red powder, abir (white scented powder), red lead, sandal paste, frankincense, lamps, sesamum seeds and of the leaves of the Tulsi, the tamarind, the Agathio or Agathi (Sesbania grandiflora) and the Bhangra, and the flowers and seeds of the Java, are made to them.

The ancestral spirits are also represented by chats (twisted braids of the Durva grass (Cynodon Dactylon)), and to them are offered the Suran (Elephant-foot) cooked rice, fried cakes of the flour of mag (Phaseolus mungo), rice cooked in milk, etc. [1292]

It is believed that the departed spirits are pleased with offerings of pindas or rice-balls. [1293]

Pindas are also made of wheat flour or molasses. Costly dishes, sesamum seeds, honey, curdled milk, clarified butter, and sugarcandy are also offered to the manes. [1294]

The pindas are generally offered on the 10th, 11th and 12th day after death and on the occasion of performing shraddha. [1295]

Rice balls are also offered to crows or thrown into water in the belief that by so offering they reach the spirits of deceased ancestors.

A belief prevails that the messengers of the god of death eat the flesh of the deceased if pindas are not offered to them. So, in ancient times, offerings of flesh balls were made instead of rice ones. [1296]

It is believed that male and female evil spirits such as bhuts and pishachas manifest themselves as dogs, notably black dogs, goats, fire, the whirl-wind, snakes or children. [1297]

They may assume the form of a he-buffalo, a heifer, a ram, a man, a woman, [1298] a lion, a tiger or a cat. [1299]

The evil spirit called jan is believed to manifest itself as a snake. [1300]

The voice of an evil spirit in any of the above forms is heard from a distance, and the nearer the hearer approaches the more it is found to recede. [1301]

Among Bharvads and Sonis, seven or nine earthen pots are broken in the house of the deceased on the tenth day after death. The number of the pots varies according to the individual merits of the deceased. [1302]

Among some low castes, an earthen pot is broken on the village boundary and another in the burning ground. [1303]

Some break an earthen pot at the village gate on their way back from the cemetery after the performance of shraddha. [1304]

In some places, the earthen pots placed on the spot where the corpse is laid in the house are broken at the village gate. [1305]

In some low castes two earthen pots are placed on the village boundary on the twelfth day after death, and broken by children. [1306]

Some carry the funeral fire in a black earthen jar as far as the village gate, where the jar is broken and the fire carried in the hand, by one of the mourners, to the burning ground. [1307]

According to some, this breaking of an earthen pot is a symbol indicating that the connection of the deceased with this world has broken or ceased. [1308]

Others hold that it indicates the disintegration of the constituents of the body into the elements of which it was formed. [1309]

There are others who are of opinion that the messengers of the god of death are satisfied with the breaking of an earthen pot after an offering to them of six rice balls and water. [1310]

When a death takes place in a family, a prana-poka or death-wail is raised by the chief mourner, who is joined afterwards by the other relatives. [1311]

The prana-poka is believed to open the gates of heaven for the admission of the soul. [1312]

Some are of opinion that the object of the death-wail, which begins with "O mara bhai!" that is, "Oh my brother!" or "O mara bap!" that is, "Oh my father!", is that at the moment of death, the soul, by hearing the sound 'Om' may ascend to the brahmarandhra or the divine seat of the brain and thus attain salvation. [1313]

When the funeral party start with the bier for the burning ground, the women of the house, accompanied by other women of the neighbourhood or village, follow them as far as the village gate, crying and singing funeral dirges. There they stop a while and sing more funeral dirges, keeping time by beating their breasts. They then start to return home, and, on their way, bathe in a tank or well and again mourn for some time before entering the house. The funeral party enter the house after the women and cry aloud for a few seconds. They also cry when the pyre is set on fire. [1314]

The mourning of the women continues for thirteen [1315] days after death. They also weep on such holidays as the Holi, the Divali, etc., and on the quarterly, six-monthly and the first anniversary Shraddha day. [1316]

Male relatives of the deceased wear a white turban as a sign of mourning. [1317]

It is generally believed that bhuts or evil spirits prove beneficial to those who succeed in securing locks of their hair or subjugate them by incantations or magical rites. [1318]

Such spirits generally belong to the class of the Bavan, the Vir, the Babro, Mamo, Vaital, Dadamo and Yaksha. Of these, Mamo, Vir, Vaital and Dadamo prove beneficial through favour, while the rest become the slaves of those who subdue them. [1319]

It is believed that Suro Puro and Dado favour only their blood relations. [1320]

It is related that in building the numerous tanks and temples attributed to Siddhraj Jaysing, a former king of Gujarat, he was assisted by the spirit Babario whom he had brought under his control. [1321]

A tradition is current that Tulsidas, the celebrated author of the Ramayan in Hindi and a great devotee of Ram, had secured personal visits from the god Hanuman through the favour of a ghost.

The king Vikram is said to have received great services from the evil spirits Vaital and Jal. [1322]

In a book entitled Vaitala Pachisi it is described how a bhut lived on a banyan tree in Ujjain. [1323]

It is related that in Rajkot a bhut called hunthia lived on a banyan tree. [1324]

To the east of Kolki there is a tree called Jala which is inhabited by a mamo. It is related that the mamo frightens persons passing by the tree. Near the school at Kolki there is a Pipal on which lives a sikotarun who frightens people passing along the road. [1325]

Is is related that a mamo lived on a Khijado tree at the gate of the village Surel. He manifested himself, dressed in white garments, for a period of nearly ten years. Once he frightened several persons out of their senses. It is said that on his being propitiated with an offering of wheaten bread at his abode (the Khijado tree), these persons recovered their senses. [1326]

The Habib-Vad or Habib's banyan tree on the road leading from Mavaiya to Gondal is a favourite haunt of bhuts, who frighten and stupefy persons passing by that road. [1327]

There is a step-well near Hampar under the jurisdiction of Dhrangadhra which is the resort of a bhut. A Girasia and his wife arrived here one day at midnight. The Girasia tied his mare to a tree hard by, and went to the well to fetch water for the mare. On his return he found there a number of mares like his own tied to the trees. He therefore smelt their mouths to recognise which of them was his own, but in the flurry caused by the appearance of so many mares, his waist-cloth got entangled, and while mounting his mare he fell down, which frightened him so much that he exclaimed "I am overtaken (by a ghost)" and died. [1328]

It is related that in the Chhaliachok at Limbdi, no woman has yet succeeded in reciting a garabi (song) in honour of the goddess Mahakali to the end, as a ghost which lives on the tamarind tree opposite the chok (square) is averse to its completion.

There is a house at Porbandar haunted by a ghost, in which none is able to reside. [1329]

It is believed that only those trees, the wood of which cannot be used for sacrificial purposes, can be haunted by evil spirits. Such trees are the Khijado, the Baval, the Kerado and the tamarind. [1330]

Kshetrapal is believed to be the guardian spirit of fields and Suropuro and Mamado are believed to protect harvest and cattle. [1331]

It is also believed that the spirit jakhara protects crops and cattle. [1332]

Mamo and Dadamo are also believed by some to be the guardian spirits of crops and cattle. [1333]

A belief runs that if a cousin (father's brother's son) becomes a spirit after death, he proves beneficial to the cattle of his relatives. [1334]

There are various ways of frightening crying children to silence, one of which is to invoke evil spirits.

When a child continues to cry for a long time, the mother says, "keep quiet, Baghada has come." "Oh Bau, come and take away this child." "Babara, come here. Don't come, my child is now silent." "May Baghada carry you away." These exclamations are uttered in such a tone and with such gestures, that generally the child is at once frightened into silence. [1335]

In addition to the spirits mentioned above, Babaro, Chudda, Dakana, Satarsingo and other spirits are also invoked to frighten a weeping child to silence. [1336]

A Bava or Bairagi, a Fakir, a tiger, a dog, a cat or a rat are all presented to the child as objects of terror, and are called one after another to silence it. [1337]