CHAPTER V.

WORSHIP OF THE MALEVOLENT DEAD.

The beliefs current as to the cause of dreams are many. One of these is that memory of known facts or incidents heard or seen causes dreams. Dreams are also supposed to be caused by disorders in the brain, by brooding constantly over a particular occurrence, by anxiety or by the perpetration of sinful acts. [959] Those who are indebted to the pitris (ancestral spirits) are also said to be troubled by dreams. [960] A hearty meal at night just before going to bed is also supposed to cause dreams. [961]

There are three conditions of human existence, (1) Jagriti that is wakefulness (2) Swapna that is dream and (3) Sushupti that is sleep. The incidents which impress the mind strongly during wakefulness are reproduced in dreams. Very often thoughts that never occur to our minds strike us in dreams. These are ascribed to the impressions made on the soul during past lives. [962]

It is said that the interpretation of dreams goes by contraries. But at times they are fully borne out. A good dream is an indication of future good, and a bad one of future evil. [963]

There are some persons whose dreams are always fulfilled. Dreams dreamt by persons pure of mind and heart seldom turn out false.

Dreams occurring in the first quarter of the night are believed to be fulfilled in a year, those in the second quarter of the night in six months, those in the third quarter in three months, and those in the last quarter in one month. A dream seen during an hour and a half before daybreak bears fruit in ten days, while that seen just at day-break is realised immediately. [964]

Dreams that occur before midnight are never fulfilled. [965]

If a person has a bad dream, he should go to sleep at once, and not communicate it to any one. If he has a good dream, he should not sleep on that night after its occurrence. Early on the following morning he should communicate it to a preceptor or saint; but if neither be available, he should repeat it into the ears of a cow. A good dream should never be told to a bad or low-minded person.

If a man sleeps after a good dream and has a bad one, the former loses its force while the latter gains ascendancy and comes true. [966]

It is related that Allauddin the bloody once entered the house of a blacksmith when the latter was asleep dreaming that he saw a treasure trove after having bathed in a stream and drunk a little water. At the same time Allauddin saw a small insect come out of the blacksmith's nostril, drink water from a neighbouring cistern, and return to the place from whence he came. When the dream was over, the blacksmith woke and communicated it to Allauddin, which enabled the latter to spot the treasure, found by excavating the place where the insect was hidden. [967]

The king Nala was questioned in his sleep several times by an individual unknown to him, "May I come now or later?" Nala replied "Come now" thinking that if it was misfortune that put him the question, it would be better to get rid of it soon, so that the latter part of life might be passed happily. The questioner proved to be misfortune, and it is related that Nala met many mishaps during his youth.

Similarly, a bad dream dreamt by Harischandra was followed by a series of calamities.

Ravan, the demon king of Lanka or Ceylon, had a dream in the third quarter of the night that Lanka was destroyed, and the destruction of Lanka followed. [968]

To see or think or experience in dreams the following, as the case may be is considered to be auspicious:--

(1) A cow, (2) a bullock, (3) an elephant, (4) a palace, (5) a mountain, (6) a high peak, (7) the droppings of a bird, (8) ointment, (9) weeping, (10) a king, (11) gold, (12) the crossing of the ocean, (13) a lamp, (14) flesh, (15) fruit, (16) a lotus, (17) a flag, (18) the image of one's favourite god, (19) a saint, (20) a Brahman, (21) an ancestral spirit, (22) a white snake biting the right side, (23) a flowering tree, (24) climbing a tree, (25) climbing the Rayan (Mimusops hexandra), (26) a woman dressed in white, (27) walking over a layer of lead, (28) lifting a goblet filled with wine, (29) a lion, (30) the goddess of wealth, (31) a garland, (32) driving in a carriage to which an elephant, a lion, a horse or a bullock is yoked, (33) swallowing the disc of the sun or the moon, (34) the hands or feet of a man, (35) worship of a deity, (36) barley, (37) rice, (38) sandal paste, (39) the Dro grass (Cynodon Dactylon), (40) the moon, (41) the sun, (42) a goblet, (43) an ocean of milk, (44) jewels, (45) smokeless fire, (46) an image of the god Shiva, Brahma or Ganesh or of the goddess Gauri, (47) a celestial vehicle, (48) the heaven, (49) the Kalpavriksha or the magic tree that satisfies all desires, (50) a river in floods, (51) fish, (52) curdled milk, (53) going on a pilgrimage, (54) ornaments, (55) crossing a river, (56) eating the flesh of a man's legs or flowers. [969]

To see in a dream (1) a person leading a life of celibacy, (2) a virgin, (3) a green tree, (4) or students returning from school, is also considered to foretell good fortune. [970]

Similarly, the sight of an unwidowed woman and the thought of the death of any person, in a dream, is believed to bring good luck.

A dream in which one of the following objects is seen is also supposed to be good:--

(1) An assemblage of Brahmans, (2) a gardener, (3) milk, (4) a prostitute, (5) a shield and sword, (6) a musket, (7) a scimitar, (8) an antelope, (9) an unwidowed woman carrying on her head a jar filled with water, (10) a mongoose, (11) a peacock, (12) a woman carrying a child on her waist, (13) newly-washed dry clothes, (14) a costly fan, (15) a man dressed in white clothes. [971]

In a book called Harit-sanhita the subject of the influence of dreams on human happiness or misery is fully treated.

The book says:--If the sun, the moon, the congregation of the stars, a lake filled with clusters of expanded lotuses, or crossing the sea or a river full of water be seen or experienced in a dream by a man, he attains wealth, happiness and prosperity and relief from diseases.

"If a cow, a horse, an elephant, a king or a flower called prashasta is seen in a dream by a sickly person, his illness disappears; if by one laid in sick bed, he is cured; if by one confined in a jail, he is released." [972]

If a child grinds its teeth and weeps in a dream, it indicates liquidation of pecuniary liabilities. One who sees a man die in a dream is blessed with longevity. [973]

A bite by a white snake in a dream is an omen of increase of wealth. [974]

"All black objects except a cow, a horse, a king, an elephant, and fish, seen in a dream, are the precursors of disease and calamity."

"One who sees in a dream his body devoured by crows, herons, camels, serpents, boars, eagles, foxes, dogs, wolves, asses, buffaloes, birds moving in the sky, tigers, fishes, alligators or monkeys, experiences in the immediate future a heavy loss or a terrible disease." [975]

The following objects seen, heard or experienced in a dream are believed to forebode evil:--

(1) Cotton, (2) ashes, (3) bones, (4) whey, (5) singing, (6) merriment, (7) laughing, (8) studying, (9) a woman dressed in red, (10) a red mark on the forehead, (11) a gandharva or heavenly bard, (12) a demon, (13) a wizard, (14) a witch, (15) a prickly shrub, (16) a cemetery, (17) a cat, (18) vomiting, (19) darkness, (20) a hide, (21) a woman with a bad reputation, (22) thirst, (23) a contest between two planets, (24) fall of a luminous body, (25) a whirlwind, (26) vishotak (a disease in which the skin is covered with ulcers), (27) one carrying away one's vehicle, wife, jewels, gold, silver or bell-metal utensils, (28) the breaking of one's own house, (29) the drinking of a poisonous liquid. [976]

If in a dream one relishes a dish of sweetmeats, plays upon a musical instrument, or sees a widow dressed in the garment of an unwidowed woman, it is believed to prognosticate evil and bring misfortune.

Similarly, if in a dream, the sleeper marries or hears the crowing of a crow or the bark of a dog, or an owl speak like a man, it portends misfortune. [977]

Seeing an auspicious mark, or bathing in or being besmeared with oil, in a dream, is an indication of one's death in the near future. Going to the south riding a he-buffalo, or seeing a widow, brings on misfortune. [978]

If a man in health comes across a corpse in a dream, he apprehends illness. If a patient does the same, he fears death. [979]

It is a common belief that the soul can leave the body temporarily.

When a man feels thirsty in sleep, his soul is supposed to leave the body to drink water, and if it finds the water pots covered, not to return to the body, which is found dead the next morning. [980] It is for this reason that most people drink water at the time of going to bed. [981]

Shankaracharya was a life long celibate. Once, in a discussion with the wife of Mandan Mishra, she put to him a question on the subject of the pleasures of married life. To answer the question it was necessary to have the experiences of a married life. To gain these experiences Shankaracharya's soul left his body and entered the corpse of a king just dead, and enjoyed the pleasures of married life for six months in the company of the queen of the deceased king. It then returned to his body, which was preserved by his disciples according to his instructions, and answered the question put to him by the wife of Mandan Mishra. [982]

It is related that the spirit of the daughter of a black-smith in Luvaria returned to her body two hours after her death, after which she lived for a fortnight.

A similar story is told of a Nagar Brahman, who lived for some years after the return of his spirit to his body. [983]

About forty years ago, the corpse of a Kanbi in Lilapur was carried to the burning ground for cremation, and there his spirit returned to his body. On being asked where he had been, the Kanbi replied that he had been to Dharmaraja, the lord of hell, who told him to go back to his body, saying that his life's thread had not yet ended. It is related that the Kanbi lived for some years after this incident.

Another instance of the soul departing and then returning to the body is that of a Kanbi woman in Lilapur, whose soul returned to the body after she had been carried to the burning ground. The woman lived for five years after this occurrence. [984]

A Brahman in Limbdi named Vaijnath had, by the performance of yoga, obtained the power of sending his spirit out of his body and recalling it at pleasure. [985]

The soul of a living being leaves its physical tabernacle during sleep and hovers about. It can go to and return from even the heavenly and infernal regions.

There are eighteen kinds of siddhis or accomplishments, one of which is parakayapravesh or the power of entering the body of another and returning to one's own body at will. The soul cannot exist separated from the body. When a person who revives after death is asked how he returned to life, he declares that he has been carried to the presence of the god of death by his messengers, being mistaken for another bearing the same name and living in the same locality. When such a mistake is detected, the god of death tells the soul of the man concerned that his life's span has not yet ended, and sends it back to the body, which appears to be dead. [986]

Often the soul of a man ascends to his temples, when the man is supposed to be dead although he is alive. In such cases, when the soul descends, the man is supposed to come to life again.

It is believed by some people that if all the desires of a man are not satisfied at the time of his death, his soul leaves the body to satisfy them and subsequently returns to the corpse, whereupon the body revives. [987]

A devotee in his meditative trance can send forth his soul whithersoever he pleases. [988]

It is also believed that the soul of man leaves the body in sleep to enjoy those pleasures which it cannot enjoy in wakefulness. [989]

The popular conceptions of the character and functions of the bhut or disembodied soul are as follows:

A ghost has no recognised form. It may assume the form of a human being, a goat, a blaze of fire, a whirl-wind or any other object it pleases. [990]

Some assume a terribly gigantic and fearfully uncouth frame, with big fang-like teeth, long matted hair and a height that reaches the sky. At times they assume the form of a child and cry heart-breakingly at a concealed corner of a road. Should a passer-by, out of compassion, try to save it, the supposed infant begins to lengthen its legs to show its benefactor its real and supernatural dimensions. Sometimes it transforms itself into a gigantic and terrible being, taking possession of the man if he becomes afraid. [991]

Some evil spirits manifest themselves as showers of burning charcoal, while some are so forward as to offer their services as guides to strangers from one village to another. Some assume the form of Bhensasur--a demon in the form of a buffalo--said to be a most malignant ghost. [992]

The throat of a ghost is as narrow as the fine end of a needle, and yet it is believed to require a dozen potfuls of water to quench its thirst. It cannot get pure water, as such water is guarded by the god Varuna. It has, therefore, to quench its thirst with such dirty water as it can get. Similarly, it cannot get clean food, and has to satisfy its hunger on human excretions, the droppings of birds and other animals, urine, and the filth of houses. [993]

It is generally believed that evil spirits do not cast shadows. All attempts to catch them prove futile, as they vanish in the form of a flame. [994]

If it is sought to catch hold of a goat-shaped ghost, the goat swells into such a monstrous size that the spectator gets terrified, whereupon the ghost finds an opportunity of disappearing in a flame.

It is believed that ghosts prefer darkness to light and silence to noise. They live on the Pipal (Ficus religiosa) or Shami (Prosopis spicigera) trees. [995]

A ghost presents itself to the vision of a man by blocking its way in the form of a goat or some other animal. [996]

Ghosts are believed to infest woods, unused wells, cellars and old tanks. They are also found in ruins and cemeteries. As far as possible they keep themselves aloof from mortals; but at times they are visible to human beings, mostly to those destitute of religion and morals. They roam about and terrify people. Sometimes they enter the persons of human beings. Such men either gain in strength, fall sick, or become senseless. The ghosts who possess them make them laugh or work, without being fatigued, with ten times the vigour they originally possessed. [997]

Ghosts keep their persons uncovered, feed upon flesh and blood, sleep during the day, and roam about at night. [998]

Often a large concourse of ghosts meet together and dance, sing and make merry uttering loud and fierce shrieks. A ghost has no back, and has its feet reversed. It keeps away from man, but terrifies him by pelting him with stones from a distance. [999]

On the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin (the twelfth month of the Gujarati Hindu year) all ghosts are believed to go about playing pranks with poor mortals and possessing them. [1000]

The Navaratra holidays is the season when ghosts appear in many places. [1001]

Ghosts enter corpses or possess human beings and speak through them as a medium. Sometimes they assume their original human form, and often torment people with disease. They present themselves as animals and pass away in a blaze. They hum in the air without being seen, wrestle with men or carry unseen human beings from one place to another. Some women are believed to conceive by intercourse with male ghosts. [1002]

If a man happens to step in the circle described by water round the offering given to a ghost, viz., utar, he is possessed by the ghost. A house haunted by a ghost is the scene of great mischief. [1003]

Ghosts are said to be most mischievous during the first part of the night. Their fury diminishes with the advance of night. [1004]

Ghosts are inimical to human beings, terrify them, and sometimes, assuming the form of a cobra, kill those whom they hated most during life. [1005]

They are pleased with offerings of blood. [1006]

To throw stones at houses and trees and to set them on fire are their usual pranks. [1007]

The ghost called Jan manifests itself as a giant, its height reaching the sky. If a man comes under its shadow, he is seized by it and dashed to pieces on the ground. On the contrary, if a man wins its favour, he becomes prosperous. Hence a proverb has been current that "seizing another as by a jan" meaning "being attacked by a dire misfortune." [1008]

There is a female ghost called Chudel. Its back is covered with flesh, its feet are reversed, its form is hollow and its face handsome like that of a charming woman. [1009]

It is said that a woman dying in childbed becomes a chudel. Her form is a skeleton behind with the figure of a pretty woman in front.

It is believed that mastery over ghosts can be obtained by dint of incantations or mantras. Those who subjugate ghosts in this way have power to command them to do their behests. But the process by which such powers are procured is believed to be beset with dangers, and many lose their lives in so doing. [1010]

There is also a belief that a bhut or ghost can be brought under control by lopping off a lock of its hair or top knot and keeping it in one's custody. [1011]

It is said that this lock ought to be kept inside the right thigh by tearing a hole in the flesh. It is believed that the thigh can be cut open by a hair of the ghost without injury. [1012]

The ghost so subjugated should never be kept unemployed; otherwise it oppresses its master. [1013]

It is believed that the spirits of deceased persons become ghosts under the following conditions:--

1 If scriptural ceremonies are not performed with the ceremonial offerings of rice balls to the deceased.

2 If the deceased dies with a strong attachment to worldly objects.

3 If the death is unnatural that is, caused by an accident.

All ghosts get absolution by the performance of propitiative ceremonies by their descendants as prescribed in the scriptures. [1014]

There are various beliefs current as to the state of the soul after death. The Garud puran contains many passages illustrating its movements after it leaves the body. Says the book:--

"When the soul leaves the body it assumes a form as small as a thumb. At this very moment it is caught by the servants of Yama while he is crying out ha! ha! looking at its corporal receptacle."

And again:--

"Covering the body of the soul (which suffers intensely) and strangling it forcibly, the servants of the god Yama carry it away just as a culprit is carried by a king's soldiers."

The verses that follow describe the miseries inflicted upon the poor thumb-shaped soul for the sins committed by him during his life-time. The sinful soul has to undergo similar miseries in hell. From hell it returns to this world guarded by the servants of Yama, to partake of the rice-balls and other articles of food offered by the sons or other relatives. It is then again taken to hell to suffer more miseries and penalties in expiation of past sins. Then it returns once more to receive the offerings of rice-balls made at shraddha ceremonies. If, even after this, any desires remain unfulfilled, it has to continue a wretched existence in the other world. [1015]

In a chapter of the Pretamanjari of the Garud Puran it is stated that the souls of righteous men go to the next world unmolested. [1016]

Some people believe that the departing soul assumes a form like a thumb, and remains in that state until relieved by the performance of shraddha by his heirs. It then enters the other world to enjoy the fruits of its good actions. The Yamapuri or the city of the god of death is 8,6´0 Yojans--a Yojan being equal to four miles--to the south of the earth. The lord of this place is Dharmaraja. Yama is his servant, whose duty is to carry the soul from one place to another. [1017]

Others maintain that two states await the soul after death according to whether it has performed righteous or sinful acts during life.

The righteous attain to heaven and enter the Parshad Vaikunta of Vishnu. The sinful go to hell or Yamaloka. [1018]

The sinful souls go to Yamaloka and are made to suffer the miseries of twenty-eight naraks or hells in proportion to the sins perpetrated by them, after which they return to the earth.

The following are some of the punishments meted out to wicked souls for their sins, in their next lives:--

1 Those who murder Brahmans suffer from consumption.

2 Those who slaughter cows are born as tortoises.

3 Those guilty of female infanticide suffer from white leprosy.

4 One who kills his wife, as well as a woman guilty of causing abortion, becomes a beggar.

5 Those who commit adultery become impotent.

6 He who seats himself on the bed or seat of his preceptor is affected by skin diseases.

7 Flesh-eaters get a red body.

8 Those who indulge in drink get black teeth.

9 A Brahman partaking of prohibited food suffers from dropsy.

10 One who eats sweets without sharing them with the by-standers suffers from cancer in the throat.

11 One who offers polluted food to departed spirits suffers from black leprosy.

12 One who disobeys and despises his teacher suffers from wind apasmar.

13 One who does not believe in the shastras suffers from enlargement of the spleen or Bright's disease.

14 A perjurer is born dumb.

15 One who does not serve food equally to all the members at a dining table loses one of his eyes.

16 Those who break off a marriage alliance are punished with thick (negro-like) lips.

17 Those who steal books lose their eye-sight.

18 He who kicks a Brahman becomes lame.

19 A liar becomes a stammerer.

20 Those who listen to contradictory versions of what is generally believed to be true become deaf.

21 One who poisons another becomes a lunatic.

22 One who steals precious metals becomes indigent.

23 An incendiary is punished with a bald head.

24 Meat-sellers meet with misfortunes.

25 One who steals gold has his nails deformed.

26 He who steals food is born a mouse.

27 One stealing corn has to be reborn as a locust.

28 One stealing opium or other poisonous drugs is born a scorpion.

29 One who steals leaves or vegetables is born a peacock.

30 One who enjoys perfumes by stealing them is born a mole.

31 One who steals honey becomes an eagle.

32 One who steals flour, rice, etc. is born a monkey. [1019]

The state of the soul after death depends upon a man's good or bad actions in life.

The souls of the righteous leave the body without any trouble. The messengers of the god of death present themselves to these souls in the form of saints and carry them to that part of the heaven which is presided over by their favourite deity, by the eastern, northern, or western gates. They are received there with great respect. Here they enjoy the fruits of their merit, after which they return to this world and are born either in the family of a wealthy virtuous man or in that of a poor Brahman who has attained the knowledge of God. In this new life they accumulate further merit, in virtue of which they are endowed with a higher spiritual life in the following birth, and so on until they attain final emancipation.

After attaining moksha or salvation the soul becomes free from the wheel of birth and rebirth.

To the souls of the sinful, who leave their bodies with a great struggle, the messengers of the god of death present themselves in a terrible form. They are carried to hell by the southern gate, being constantly lashed on the way. There they are relegated to one of the twenty-eight pits (of hell) appropriate to their misdeeds, to suffer retribution for their sins. [1020]

The soul is carried to Dharmaraja after it leaves the body. Thence, with the permission of the god, it returns to this world and halts for thirteen days at the threshold of its house. On the thirteenth day an earthen jar filled with water is emptied on a pipal tree (Ficus religiosa) after which its connection with this world ceases. Then it returns to the heavenly judge of actions (Dharmaraja), and is again born in the species prescribed by him. The soul of a strictly spiritual being merges into the divine entity and becomes free from birth and rebirth.

Moksha or Mukti, that is final emancipation is of two kinds, sayujya or merging into the divine form and samishya or entering the divine order and living in this state so long as one's merits allow.

Dharmaraja keeps an account of the good and bad actions of all men in his book called siddhi karan, and dispenses justice according to it. A man guilty of adultery is sentenced to embrace a redhot image of a woman; one who has slaughtered animals is devoured by those animals; while those who have committed the sin of murdering Brahmans are relegated to hell for ever. [1021]

There are seven rungs to the ladder which leads to the next world. The first is covered with a thick forest. The second bristles with pointed spears. The third is strewn with gokharu (a species of thorns). The fourth has piercing blasts. On the fifth runs the river Vaitarna. The sixth is full of red-hot iron. The seventh is covered with deep streams. [1022]

After death, the soul has to cross the river Vaitarna (vide the fifth rung above) on its way to the next world. Those who have given cows in charity can cross this river without difficulty by holding the tails of the cows, who present themselves to help them.

Those who have given shoes in charity can tread the third step with ease.

The sinful have to walk barefooted on ground studded with pointed spears, and to embrace red-hot iron pillars. It is with the object of avoiding these miseries that people distribute shoes and clothes in charity. [1023]

The sinful expiate their sins by passing through a cycle of 8,400,000 births. [1024] They have to be born 2,100,000 times in the class of creatures born of eggs, 2,100,000 times in the species of worms produced from sweat, 2,100,000 times from embryonic birth and a similar number of times in the vegetable kingdom.

Those who lack virtue but commit no sins are born in the divine order of a low grade such as the servants of Kuber, the attendants of the god Shiva, Gandharvas, Vaitals, Brahmarakshasas, Kushmands and other demigods. Virtuous women are born as goddesses or devis or as apsaras or celestial songstresses. Those who have performed only a few acts of righteousness enter the ranks of Jakhanis, Kinnaris, Matrikas, and the maid servants of the goddess Durga. [1025]

The souls of the righteous are carried by Yamadutas or the messengers of the god of death through five cities, by a route passing through beautiful gardens; while those of the sinful are led barefooted over brambles and pointed spears by roads running through dense forests hidden in pitchy darkness. The latter have also to cross large rivers and pass through streams filled with blood and puss. As they pass, eagles prey upon their bodies and they are bitten by venomous snakes. [1026]

The souls of those who have in life performed good actions pass through the sun and assume divine forms; while those of ordinary beings pass through the moon and return to this world. [1027]

A sinful soul has to go to Yamaloka or hell through sixteen cities. On its way it has to cross the river Vaitarna, which consists of blood mixed with puss. He who has presented a cow to a Brahman can cross this river with ease. Beyond this river lies a land which is covered with spikes. Those who have given in charity ashtamahadan, that is, sesamum seeds, flour, gold, cotton, salt, clarified butter, milk and sugarcandy, can walk over this ground without being hurt. When the soul has reached Yama or the god of death, the sun and the moon, the ever-living witnesses of human actions, testify to its virtues and sins, and it is meted out a punishment appropriate to its sins. [1028]

In order that the departed soul may not find its way difficult, his heirs make a gift to a Brahman of a bedstead, bedding, a lamp, corn, a pair of shoes and other articles, on the thirteenth day after death. This gift is called seraja. [1029]

One enters the human order after passing through 8,400,000 species of living beings. It is in the human life that one can accumulate merit, and wipe out the influence of past sins.

Those who meet a sudden or violent death, e. g., by being crushed under a falling house, by drowning in a well, by an accidental fall, by a snake bite, etc. enter the order of bhuts, pretas, pishachas, etc., and are said to have gone to durgati or to a bad path. [1030]

But those who die on a field of battle are believed to attain heaven. [1031]

According to another belief, persons dying a violent death have to pass through the same fate, that is, die violently, for the next seven lives. [1032]

Their souls are said to be liable to enter the asurgati or the order of devils. They are emancipated from this condition by the performance by their descendants of the ceremony called Nil parnavavi or of those ceremonies prescribed in the Pal Shastra. [1033]

It is also believed that such souls after entering the order of ghosts oppress and torment their descendants and relatives. [1034]

In the case of suicides, when the crime is proved before the god of death the culprit is hurled into a hell called Maharaurava, where he has to pass a thousand years. After the expiry of this period he is born again into this world, again commits suicide, and again meets the same fate after death. This is repeated seven times, after which he has to pass through 8,400,000 species of animals before again obtaining the human life. [1035]

If the suicide be caused by poisoning, the person, in his next life, becomes a serpent; if by drowning or strangling, he becomes a ghost. [1036]

Some believe that the souls of persons meeting a violent death enter the order of such ghosts as Jinni, Mamo, etc. For their emancipation shraddhas are performed by their descendants. At times these ghosts possess the persons of their nearest relatives, and through this medium declare their desires. If they express a desire to have a palio or pillar erected in their name, one is erected on the spot where they breathed their last. On this pillar is engraved a figure riding a horse, representing the deceased, which is besmeared with red lead or ochre. This representation is worshipped as a deity with offerings of frankincense, cocoanuts and lamps fed with ghi. [1037]

The palio is called surdhan, and is worshipped, especially on the death anniversary of the deceased. [1038]

In some castes the surdhans are installed in the house of the deceased. [1039]

There are various beliefs current as to the way in which spirits enter and leave the body.

According to one belief, when a person gets frightened by the apparition of a ghost, the ghost enters his body through one of the organs, and makes him senseless and violent. [1040]

According to another belief, a ghost, as stated above, takes an airy form and enters the body through any channel through which air can enter the body. It leaves the body by the same route. [1041]

There is also a belief that evil spirits enter the body of a man through any part of the body and under their influence the person possessed dances, jumps, foams or sits idle [1042].

There is a further belief that a ghost enters the body through the thumb and gets out by the ears. [1043]

According to some, a ghost makes its way into the body through the anus and its exit by the same route. [1044]

Others maintain that it enters the body through the nostrils and gets out by the same passage. [1045]

Some say that it finds an entrance and outlet through the skull. [1046]

There are others who are of opinion that the immaterial form of a ghost can find admission into the body by the right side and egress the same way. [1047]

It is said that when the body is unclean, a ghost can enter it through any of the organs. [1048]

To drive away an evil spirit from the body of a person, a conjuror, Vanjha, Koli, Vaghri, Atit, Fakir or other exorcist is engaged to set a danklan [1049] and to offer a victim and frankincense to the evil spirit, which is supposed to drive the spirit out by the same route by which it entered the body. [1050] [1051]

Another method of driving away an evil spirit from the body is as follows:--

As soon as it is ascertained that a man is possessed by an evil spirit, somebody catches hold of the top-knot of the man or ties it into a knot. Next he is lashed with a whip or chain until the ghost in him cries out "Please don't beat me. I shall leave the body and shall never return." Then the ghost is told that it is a liar, that it said a thousand times that it would leave the body and not return, but it did not do it. No faith, therefore, would be put in its word. After a haggling dialogue of this kind and on the ghost's confirmation of its offer never to return by some satisfactory oath or assurance, the top-knot is unloosed and the ghost disappears. [1052]

A third method is to subject the person possessed to the fumes of red chillies or of black wood, or to tie a sacred thread round his elbow.

After one of these processes has been performed to expel the ghost, the victim gives a deep yawn, and it is said that the ghost goes out in the yawn. Next the relieved person is given water to drink, and an exorcist is engaged to take measures to prevent the possibility of the ghost's return. [1053]

In a book entitled Brahman Nighanta Ratnakar is described the method of driving away an evil spirit from the body of a man by an offering of dhup or frankincense. The dhup to be used for this purpose must be made of gugal, and it must be offered with honey and clarified butter, repeating the following mantra:--

"Amen. Bow to the divine Lord of the evil spirits, the Lord whose teeth, jaws, and mouth are fierce, by whose three eyes the forehead is ablaze, whose lustre is marked by irresistible anger, who holds a crescent moon on the forehead and matted hair on the head, whose body is besmeared with ashes; whose neck is adorned by the poison of the fierce lord of the cobras. Oh! may success attend to thee! Oh! Great one! The Lord of spirits! manifest thy form, dance, dance; move, move; tie with a chain, tie; terrify by a neigh, terrify; kill, kill by the adamantine wand; cut, cut off by a sharp weapon; tear off, tear off by the point of a spear; reduce, reduce to atoms by the bludgeon; remove remove, all the evil spirits Swaha." [1054]

There are various superstitious beliefs entertained by people regarding sneezing.

According to one belief, if a person sneezes face to face with another who is about to begin an auspicious act, such as starting on a journey, decking his person with ornaments, performing a marriage ceremony, and the like, it portends misfortune to the latter; but a sneeze on his right or at his back foretells good. A sneeze in front of a person starting to perform an auspicious act is supposed to mean that a blow has been struck on his forehead, suggesting that the act should be stopped. If, in spite of this warning, the act is commenced, evil consequences are sure to follow.

A sneeze at a man's back confirms the unobstructed fulfilment of the act taken in hand, as it is believed to have patted the man on his back or shoulders in token of approval.

Sneezes on either side, right or left, portend neither good nor evil.

As a rule, sneezes are believed to forebode evil, and it is considered highly unmannerly to sneeze while one is about to begin an auspicious act or start with a good purpose. If, in spite of this etiquette, one sneezes, he excuses himself by saying that he is suffering from cold. [1055]

Some people believe that a sneeze in front is an indication of a broil on the road, a sneeze on the left side portends loss of money, one from above is a harbinger of success, one from below foretells danger, while the sneeze of the man who is engaged or is starting on the act contemplated is believed to be very injurious. A sneeze on the right is considered neither good nor bad. [1056]

A sneeze in the east causes anxiety, in the south-east foretells happiness, in the south speaks of coming loss, and in the south-west is an indication of good. A sneeze from the west or north-west is considered good, from the north injurious, and from the north-east auspicious. [1057]

Some lines from the sayings of Gorakhraj run to the effect that a sneeze in the east causes anxiety, one in the south-east inflicts a sound beating, one in the south brings a visitor or guest, one in the south-west subjects the person concerned to a taunt, one in the west bestows a throne or crown, one in the north-west promises sweets or dainties, one in the north foretells good, one in the north-east brings disappointment, while one's own sneeze is so ominous that one should never start out on any business after sneezing. [1058]

The beliefs enumerated above relate to sneezes which occur on certain week days. The sneezes which occur on Sundays have the following consequences.

A sneeze from the east is good, one from the south-east points to delay in the fulfilment of one's intended object, one from the south brings in profit, one from the south-west results in death, one from the west in happiness, one from the north-west throws one into the society of good men, one from the north is productive of pecuniary gain, and one from the north-east of general wellbeing. [1059]

It is a common belief that if while one is about to commence some act, somebody sneezes once, the act is doomed to fail, and to avoid failure it must be postponed. But if the sneeze is repeated, no harm ensues.

A sneeze by an ailing person is believed to be a sign of his recovery, and more sneezes by the same person are supposed to indicate his complete recovery, even though the symptoms be not favourable.

A sneeze by a cow at the commencement of an auspicious act is supposed to be the worst possible omen, and a sneeze by a cat is proverbially a portent of failure in any act taken in hand at the time. [1060]

A yawn is generally believed to be harmless, as it does not foretell either good or evil. Still as sometimes it results in accidental instantaneous death, the elders of a person when he yawns, exclaim, "Be long-lived! Patience! Live long!", and the spiritually disposed repeat the name of the god of their devotion. [1061]

Lest spirits may make their way into the body of a person through his mouth when he is yawning, or lest his soul may pass out of it, some people pinch him to stop the yawn while others utter the words "Ram" "Ram" to divert his attention. [1062]

In mythological times, Brahma, one of the gods of the Hindu Trinity, once left his body for a time. Some people began to molest the body, when he cried out, "Rakho! Rakho!" that is "Keep aloof! Keep aloof!" or "Wait! Wait!". These people came to be called Rakho [1063] which in course of time corrupted into Rakshasa. The beings who hold sway over rakshasas are called Maharakshasas. In the Ramayan and other purans, rakshasas are represented as feeding on human flesh. [1064]

A rakshasa is supposed to be sixteen miles in height and to roam about for his prey within a circle with a radius of sixteen miles. [1065]

The Maharakshasas are supposed to have their abode in the seas. It is said that they burn or swallow ships sailing thereon. [1066]

The rakshasas are supposed to number 60,000,000 and the maharakshasas 20,000. Kubera, a maharakshasa, is the lord of the rakshasas. [1067]

It is said that the rakshasas, maharakshasas, wizards and witches were visible to the human eye during the tretayuga. With the commencement of the present or kaliyuga they have become invisible. It is stated in the Purans that during the recitation of the Surya kavach, Saptasani or the Narayan kavach, if the rakshasas or maharakshasas fall into or approach the limits circumscribed for them, the recitation proves ineffective. [1068]

It is a common belief that there is bitter enmity between the gods and rakshasas. The former follow the path of virtue while the latter lead immoral lives devouring Brahmans and cows, feeding on flesh, and indulging in intoxicating drinks. The habitat of the rakshasas is the patal or nether world, Rawan being their king. [1069]

The exploits of some of the rakshasas are described in the Mahabharat, Bhagvat and the Ramayan. For instance, the misdeeds of Jarasandh, Ghatotkacha and Hedamba are described in the Mahabharat; those of Kansa, Banasur, Pralambasur, Adhasur, Dhenukasur, Kalanemi, Shankasur and Vritrasur in the Bhagvat; and those of Ravan, Kumbhakarna and Indrajit in the Ramayan. [1070]

A rakshasa named Tripurasur conquered the heavens, the earth and the nether regions, and began to annoy the gods. The god Shiva burnt the rakshasa to ashes. [1071]

The two rakshasas Hiranyaksha and Hiranyakashyapu were originally the gate-keepers of Vishnu, one of the gods of the Hindu trinity. Once they affronted Sanatkumar, the son of Brahma, when they were cursed by Vishnu who decreed that they would be born rakshasas in three successive lives. In these lives they had to play the part of the enemies of gods and men, and were destroyed by Vishnu as such.

A rakshasa named Jalandhar is stated to have met his death when the chastity of his wife was violated by the god Vishnu in the disguise of her husband. [1072]

Maharakshasas are also known by the name of Brahma rakshasas. A Brahman dying without imparting all his learning to his disciples or with the guilt of the murder of a Brahman or a cow on him is believed to enter the order of Brahma rakshasas after his death. In this state he possesses a body without a head. A Brahma rakshasa is also called Khavis. [1073] [1074]

In addition to the wizards and witches mentioned above, there are others the names of which are as follows:--

(1) Dakini, (2) Sakini, (3) Kushmand, (4) Zod, (5) Dholio, (6) Pale Marad, (7) Bhuchar, (8) Khechar, (9) Jalaj, (10) Jakharo, (11) Shikotrum, (12) Ashtabharo, (13) Chand Chani, (14) Chorosi Kantini, (15) Jogani, (16) Hathadi, (17) Miyali, (18) Ghanchini, (19) Mochini, (20) Baladi, (21) Molani, (22) Khuntini, (23) Suti, (24) Gavati, (25) Bethi, (26) Ubhi, (27) Avi, (28) Chaurar, (29) Madhu Pavanti, (30) Mansa Khavanti, (31) Bhasika, (32) Pratab, (33) Vira, (34) Vavanchara, (35) Chorasi Viru, (36) Nao Narasing, (37) Jaikha, (38) Jutaka, (39) Masida, (40) Gandharavi, (41) Jami, (42) Asmani, (43) Mamikula, [1075] (44) Zampadi, (45) Meladi, (46) Balla. [1076]

Of the above, the first forty-three together with Chudela or Vantri and Preta are believed by some to be the names of so many Joganis or female evil spirits or witches. The remaining are living Dakans or witches who are believed to cause illness or even death by their evil eye to those on whom they throw a glance. [1077]

Wizards live upon ordinary food, witches on air, while pretas require nothing to eat for their maintenance. It is said that their backs and shoulders are covered with filth and emit an offensive odour. [1078]

It is generally believed that the spirits of such male members of low unclean castes as die a violent death become Khavis. [1079] Some believe that Khavis or Khabith is a Musalman ghost. [1080] Others hold that he is the lord of all ghosts. [1081]

Khavis has no head. His eyes are located in the chest. He is as tall as a cocoa-palm or bamboo. He roams about holding in one hand a weapon and in the other a lump of flesh. Those over whom his shadow falls are said to fall ill. [1082] His appearance is so terrible that a person who sees him for the first time is frightened to death. [1083] It is stated that he starts on his excursions after sun-set. [1084]

The attendants of the god Shiva known as Vaitalikas are said to have no heads. [1085] They live in cremation grounds, as they have a burning desire to possess the bodies of deceased persons. [1086]

A belief runs that the trunk of the evil spirit called Suropuro, that is the spirit of one who meets a heroic death, moves about like a Khavis. [1087]

It is a common belief that evil spirits haunt trees, groves, deserted tanks and woods. [1088]

Vetal roams over burial and cremation grounds, as also Bhuchar, Khechar, Kal-Bhairav and a number of other ghosts. [1089]

The Jimp, Babaro and some other ghosts reside in fortresses and unoccupied houses and roam about in the burning grounds. Chudela, Kotda and Brahma Rakshasa make their abodes on the tamarind, Shami (Prosopis spicigera), Babul and Kerado trees and in deep tanks and wells in deserted places. Their favourite haunts are river banks. [1090]

It is stated by some people that the Chudel, Vantri, Dakan, Jimp, Khavis and other ghosts generally haunt cremation grounds, fields where battles have been fought, thresholds of houses and latrines and cross-roads. [1091]

Some declare that ghosts are also to be found in temples in which there are no images and in dry wells. [1092]

The ghost preta is said to be as tall as a camel, the passage of its throat being as small as the bore of a needle. It is therefore believed to be always wandering about in quest of water. [1093]

The evil spirit Jan haunts mountains and forests and Mamo the centres of filth, while Vetal is found in cremation grounds. [1094]

Jan, Brahma Rakshasa and Khavis reside in woods, trees, or on mountains, Khijadio Mamo lives in the Khijada or Shami tree and Amatho Mamo in a grove of trees. Spirits of high caste people not emancipated from the trammels of birth and rebirth have their abode in the Pipal tree. [1095]

It is related that once a number of boys, on their return from a tank to which they had gone on a swimming excursion, passed by a Khijada tree, when one of them suggested to the others to throw stones at the tree, saying that any one not doing so would fall under the displeasure of God. One of the boys threw a stone at a neighbouring Babul tree with the result that on reaching home he fell ill in a fit of terror. He began to shake and said, "Why did you strike me with a stone? I had resorted to the Babul tree from the Khijado and you struck me there. I shall not depart until I take your life." Evidently it was the Khijadio Mamo who had possessed the boy who spoke the above words; and an exorcist was called who drove him out by the incantation of mantras; after which the boy recovered. [1096]

It is believed that a woman who dies an unnatural death becomes a Chudel and troubles her husband, her successor or co-wife, or her children. [1097]

There are three classes of Chudels, (1) Poshi, (2) Soshi and (3) Toshi. Those women that have not enjoyed before death the pleasures of this world to their satisfaction enter the order of Poshi Chudels. They fondle children and render good service to their widower husbands.

Those women that are persecuted beyond endurance by the members of their families become Soshi Chudels after death. They dry up the blood of men and prove very troublesome to the members of the family.

Those women who bear a strong attachment to their husbands enter the order of Toshi Chudels and bring great pleasure and happiness to their husbands in this life. [1098]

Most high caste people, on the death of their first wives, take an impression of their feet on gold leaves or leaf-like tablets of gold and cause their second wives to wear them round their necks. [1099] These impresses of feet are called shok-pagalans or mourning footprints. Among the lower castes, the hands or the feet of the second wives are tattooed in the belief that this prevents the deceased wife from causing injury to the second wife. [1100]

All female spirits called Pishachas or Dakans and male spirits called Virs or Bhuts oppress their descendants. [1101]

It is also believed that any male member of a family dying with certain of his desires unfulfilled becomes a Surdhan and oppresses the surviving relatives, while a female member troubles others as Sikoturu or Mavadi. [1102]

The spirits of men that fall victims to tigers or other wild animals are believed to enter the ghostly order and wander about until they are relieved from this state by the performance of the prescribed shraddha by some pious surviving relative. [1103] These evil spirits live in forests and eat nothing but flesh. [1104] If they do not get flesh to eat they eat the flesh of their own bodies. [1105] At times they put their relatives to great annoyance by entering their persons. To pacify them, palios are erected in their name, and their images are set up in the square cavities of walls. These images are besmeared with red lead and oil by their descendants on the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin. The relief of such spirits is sought by the performance of a shraddha either at Siddhapur or at Gaya. [1106]

It is believed that a woman dying in child-bed or menses enters the order of ghosts variously known as Chudels, Vantris or Taxamis. In order that she may not return from the cremation ground, mustard seeds are strewn along the road behind her bier, for a belief prevails that she can only succeed in returning if she can collect all the mustard seeds thus strewn on the way. [1107]

In some places, loose cotton wool is thrown over the bier so as to be scattered all along the road to the cemetery. It is believed that the Chudel can only return to the house if she can collect all the cotton scattered behind her in one night. This is considered an impossible task, and no fear is therefore entertained of her return after the cotton has been scattered. [1108]

To prevent the return of the Chudel, some people pass underneath the bier the legs of the cot on which the woman lay in her confinement, while others drive in an iron nail at the end of the street immediately after the corpse has been carried beyond the village boundary. [1109]

In some places, the nail is driven into the threshold of the house. [1110]

Even after the precautions mentioned above have been taken, to prevent the return of a Chudel or Vantri, Shraddhas are performed, and a number of Brahman women feasted on the twelfth and thirteenth day after death to propitiate her as the fear of the mischief done by her is very strong.

A Chudel has no shoulders. [1111] Any passer by coming across her is asked by her to take her to his home, and if he agrees, she accompanies him, passes the night in his company, and brings his life to a speedy end. In the village of Charadi under the jurisdiction of Dhrangadhra, a Girasia named Halaji fell into the clutches of a Chudel who was driven from his person by the enchantment of a Jati on condition that he should not go into the eastern part of the village. [1112]

It is believed that a woman can be relieved from the ghostly order of a Chudel by the performance of a shraddha at Siddhapur. [1113]

There is no belief that the father has to take special precautions at the birth of his child except that care is taken to note the exact time of the child's birth for the purpose of casting its horoscope correctly. An inkstand and pen are also placed in the lying-in-room, as it is believed that the creator writes the destiny of a child as soon as it makes its appearance into the world. [1114]

All children born in Jyeshta Nakshatra, Mula-nakshatra, or Yamaghanta are said to cause the death of their male parent. Such children were left to starve uncared for in forests in olden times; but now-a-days they are kept alive, as certain performances are believed to avert the evil. One such performance is only to see the child after clarified butter has been given in donation. Another is to see its face after it has been bathed with the water collected from eighteen wells in a pot with a thousand holes. [1115] In a third, the parents of the child hold in their hands goblets filled with clarified butter, and see their faces reflected in them before the child is presented to the sight of the father.

Such children are named Mulubhai, Mulchand, Muli or Mulo.

A child born in the month of Jyeshta prognosticates poverty. [1116]

If the birth time of a child happens to fall within the ecliptic period, that is the period of nine hours before an eclipse takes place, as well as in the duration of the eclipse, the father does not see the child before performing certain rites, as to do so is supposed to bring misfortune. [1117]

If a man has a child in his twentieth year he does not see the child before he completes it. [1118]

If a child is born at a wrong juncture or conjunction of the stars, the father does not see it for twenty-seven days. [1119]

A child born on the fourth, fourteenth or fifteenth day of a month is supposed to become a burden to its father. [1120]

It is a common belief that a woman in child-bed should not see the face of her husband nor he of her. [1121]

Women who do not obey the commands of their husbands, who partake of their meals secretly before their husbands, [1122] or violate any of their duties towards their husbands, are believed to enter the order of bats or owls after their death. [1123]

According to another belief, men who have been incontinent become owls after death, while such women become bats. [1124]

The owls and bats are blind during the day, but they can see corpses and the spirits of the deceased and converse with them in their own tongue. [1125]

The spirits of the deceased are supposed to remain in their worldly tenement for twelve days, and owls and bats are supposed to be able to see them at night and talk to them. [1126]

One of the beliefs entertained by Hindus about the owl is that none should throw a lump of earth at it, as the owl is believed to pick up the missile and throw it into a well or tank or any sheet of water, with the result that it gradually dissolves and disappears, and simultaneously the body of the person is said to be consumed. [1127]

If perchance an owl utters some note perching on the top cross beam of a house on a Sunday or Tuesday night, the owner of the house should pass a dark woollen thread below the cross beam, to which a nude person should give a knot at every screech of the owl. If such a thread be kept in one's anklet, one need have no fear of ghosts nor can he be seen by a dakan or witch.

If a person in sleep responds to the call of an owl, he is believed to expire within six months from that date. [1128]

If an owl screeches every night for six months on one's house or an adjacent tree, a terror seizes the members of the house that some sure and certain calamity not short of death is imminent. [1129]

An owl sitting on the house of a person and screeching is said to be uttering threats or forebodings of calamities and misfortunes, and is believed to foretell the death of some near relative or of a member of the household. [1130]

If a miser dies after accumulating vast treasures, his spirit becomes a ghost or a snake and guards his wealth. [1131]

According to another belief, a miser dying without an heir becomes a snake to guard his treasure. [1132]

It is believed that such treasures are accessible to batrisas [1133] (those possessed of thirty two accomplishments).

Those persons that die while ousted from the houses built by them become ghosts, and, residing in the houses, do not allow any body to live therein, and leave them only when they are demolished. [1134]

Some evil spirits guard treasures in the form of drones. [1135]

It is related that there is a pond called Lakhota near Jamvadi in Gondal. It contains a treasure guarded by a cobra which tries to bite whosoever attempts to remove it. [1136]

The Janchar, Bhuchar, Jin and some other spirits are believed to haunt valleys. [1137]

Some believe that those persons that meet their death in valleys become evil spirits and haunt the valleys. [1138]

Rakhevalio, Andhario, Sevalio, Sulio and Ragatio are evil spirits that haunt the ruins of magnificent buildings and also valleys. [1139]