Chapter 11
_MISCELLANEOUS SUPERSTITIONS._
Glamour was a kind of witch power which certain people were supposed to be gifted with; by the exercise of such influence they took command over their subjects' sense of sight, and caused them to see whatever they desired that they should see. Sir Walter Scott describes the recognised capability of glamour power in the following lines:--
"It had much of glamour might, Could make a lady seem a knight. The cobwebs on a dungeon wall, Seem tapestry in lordly hall. A nutshell seem a gilded barge, A sheeling seem a palace large, And youth seem age, and age seem youth, All was delusion, nought was truth."
Gipsies were believed to possess this power, and for their own ends to exercise it over people. In the ballad of "Johnny Faa," Johnny is represented as exercising this power over the Countess of Cassillis--
"And she came tripping down the stairs, With a' her maids before her, And soon as he saw her weel faured face, He coost the glamour o'er her."
To possess a four-leaved clover completely protected any one from this power. I remember a story which I heard when a boy, and the narrator of it I recollect spoke as if he were quite familiar with the fact. A certain man came to the village to exhibit the strength of a wonderful cock, which could draw, when attached to its leg by a rope, a large log of wood. Many people went and paid to see this wonderful performance, which was exhibited in the back yard of a public house. One of the spectators present on one occasion had in his possession a four-leaved clover, and while others saw, as they supposed, a log of wood drawn through the yard, this person saw only a straw attached to the cock's leg by a small thread. I may mention here that the four-leaved clover was reputed to be a preventative against madness, and against being drafted for military service.
One very ancient and persistent superstition had regard to the direction of movement either of persons or things. This direction should always be with the course of the sun. To move against the sun was improper and productive of evil consequences, and the name given to this direction of movement was _withershins_. Witches in their dances and other pranks, always, it was said, went _withershins_. Mr. Simpson in his work, _Meeting the Sun_, says, "The Llama monk whirls his praying cylinder in the way of the sun, and fears lest a stranger should get at it and turn it contrary, which would take from it all the virtue it had acquired. They also build piles of stone, and always pass them on one side, and return on the other, so as to make a circuit with the sun. Mahommedans make the circuit of the Caaba in the same way. The ancient dagobas of India and Ceylon were also traversed round in the same way, and the old Irish and Scotch custom is to make all movements _Deisual_, or sunwise, round houses and graves, and to turn their bodies in this way at the beginning and end of a journey for luck, as well as at weddings and other ceremonies."
To go _withershins_ and to read prayers or the creed backwards were great evils, and pointed to connection with the devil. The author of _Olrig Grange_, in an early poem, sketches this superstition very graphically:--
"Hech! sirs, but we had grand fun Wi' the meikle black deil in the chair, And the muckle Bible upside doon A' ganging withershins roun and roun, And backwards saying the prayer About the warlock's grave, Withershins ganging roun; And kimmer and carline had for licht The fat o' a bairn they buried that nicht, Unchristen'd, beneath the moon."
If a tree or plant grew with a twist contrary to the direction of the sun's movement, that portion was considered to possess certain powers, which are referred to in the following verse of an old song:--
"I'll gar my ain Tammy gae doun to the Howe And cut me a rock of the widdershins grow, Of good rantree for to carry my tow, And a spindle of the same for the twining o't."
Pennant refers to some other practices in Scotland in his day, that were no doubt survivals of ancient heathen worship. Such as on certain occasions kindling a fire, and the people joining hands and dancing three times round it south-ways, or according to the course of the sun. At baptisms and marriages they walked three times round the church sun-ways. The Highlanders, in going to bathe or drink in a consecrated fountain, approach it by going round the place from east to west on the south side. When the dead are laid in their grave, the grave is approached by going round in the same manner. The bride is conducted to the spouse in presence of the minister round the company in the same direction; indeed, all public matters were done according to certain fixed ideas in relation to the sun, all pointing to a lingering ray of sun worship.
If a fire were slow or _dour_ to kindle, the poker was taken and placed in front of the grate, one end resting on the fender, the other on the front bar of the grate, and this, it was believed, would cause the fire to kindle quickly. This practice is still followed by many, but being compelled now to give an apparently scientific reason for their conduct, they say that it is so placed to produce a draught. But this it does not do. The practice originated in the belief that the slow or dour fire was spell-bound by witchcraft, and the poker was so placed that it would form the shape of a cross with the front bar of the grate, and thus the witch power be destroyed. In early times when the poker was placed in this position, the person who placed it repeated an _Ave Marie_ or _Paternoster_, but this feature of the ceremony died out, and with it the reason for the practice was forgotten. I have seen it done in private houses, and very frequently in the public rooms of country inns. Indeed, in such public rooms it was the common practice when the servant put on a fire, that after sweeping up the dust she placed the poker in this position, and left the room. Probably she had no idea why she did it, but merely followed the custom.
In a general chapter, such as this, I can find room for some things which could not properly find a place in other chapters. The subject of omens has by no means been exhausted. The late George Smith, in his work upon the Chaldean Account of Genesis, says that in ancient Babylonia, 1600 B.C., everything in nature was supposed to portend some coming event. Without much exaggeration, the same might be said of the people of this country during the earlier part of this century.
On seeing the first plough in the season, it was lucky if it were seen coming towards the observer, and he or she, in whatever undertaking then engaged, might be certain of success in it; but, if seen going from the observer, the omen was reversed.
If a farmer's cows became restive without any apparent cause, it foreboded trouble to either master or mistress.
On going on any business, if the first person met with was plain-soled, the journey might be given up, for, if proceeded with, the business to be transacted would prove a failure; but, by turning and entering the house again, with the right foot first, and then partaking of food before resuming the journey, it might be undertaken without misgiving.
It was unlucky to walk under a ladder set up against a wall, but if passing under it could not be avoided, then, if before doing so, you wished for anything, your wish would be fulfilled.
It was unlucky to eat twin nuts found in one shell.
If the eye or nose itched, it was a sign that the person so affected would be vexed in some way that day. If the foot itched, it was a sign that the owner of the foot was about to undertake a strange journey. If the elbow itched, it betokened the coming of a strange bedfellow. If the right hand itched, it signified that money would shortly be received by it; and, if the left hand itched, that money would shortly have to be paid away.
If the ear tingled, it was a sign that some one was speaking of the person so affected. If it were the right ear which did so, then the speech was favourable; if the left ear, the reverse. In this latter case, if the persons whose ears tingled were to bite their little fingers, this would cause the persons speaking evil of them to bite their tongues.
To break a looking-glass, hanging against a wall, was a sign that death would shortly occur in the family.
If a daughter's petticoat was longer than her frock, it shewed that her father loved her better than her mother did.
If you desired luck with any article of dress, it should be worn first at church.
If a person unwittingly put on an article of dress outside in, it was an omen that he or she would succeed in what they undertook that day; but it was requisite that this portion of dress should remain with the wrong side out until night, for, if reversed earlier, the luck was reversed also.
To weigh children was considered an objectionable practice, as it was believed to injure their health, and cause them to grow up weakly.
If a child cut the upper teeth before the lower, it was very unlucky for the child.
If a cradle were rocked when the child was not in it, it was said to give the child a headache; but if it so happened that the child was too old to be rocked in a cradle, but its baby clothes were still in the house, then this incident portended that its mother would have another baby.
To make a present of a knife or a pair of scissors, and refuse to accept anything in return, was said to cut or sever friendship between giver and receiver.
If, at a social gathering, a bachelor or maid were placed inadvertently betwixt a man and his wife, the person so seated would be married within a year.
If a person in rising from table overturned his chair, this shewed that he had been speaking untruths.
To feel a cold tremor along the spine was a sign that some one was treading on the spot of earth in which the person so affected would be buried.
If a person spoke aloud to himself, it was a sign that he would meet with a violent death.
If a girl married a man the initial letter of whose name was the same as her own, it was held that the union would not be a happy one. This notion was formulated into this proverb--
"To change the name and not the letter. Is a change for the worse, and not for the better."
If thirteen people sat down to dinner, the first who rose from table would, it was said, either die or meet with some terrible calamity within a year's time.
When burning caking coal it often happens that a small piece of fused matter is projected from the fire. When this took place the piece was searched for and examined, and from its shape certain events were prognosticated concerning the person in whose direction it had fallen. If shaped like a coffin it presaged death, if like a cradle it foretold a birth. I have seen such an incident produce a considerable sensation among a group sitting round a fire.
To find the shoe of a horse and hang it behind the house door was considered to bring good luck to the household, and protection from witchcraft or evil eye. I have seen this charm in large beer shops in London, and I was present in the parlour of one of these beer shops when an animated discussion arose as to whether it was most effective to have the shoe nailed behind the door, or upon the first step of the door. Each position had its advocates, and instances of extraordinary luck were recounted as having attended each position.
If a youth sat musing and intently looking into the fire, it was a sign that some one was throwing an evil spell over him, or fascinating him for evil. When this was observed, if any one without speaking were to take the tongs and turn the centre coal or piece of wood in the grate right over, and while doing so say, "_Gude preserve us frae a' skaith_," it would break the spell, and cause the intended evil to revert on the evil-disposed person who was working the spell. I have not only seen the operation performed many times, but have had it performed in my own favour by my worthy grandmother, whose belief in such things could never be shaken.
If the nails of a child were cut before it was a year old, the chances were that it would grow up a thief.
To spill salt while handing it to any one was unlucky, a sign of an impending quarrel between the parties; but if the person who spilled the salt carefully lifted it up with the blade of a knife, and cast it over his or her shoulder, all evil consequences were prevented. In Leonardo de Vinci's celebrated painting of the Last Supper, the painter has indicated the enmity of Judas by representing him in the act of upsetting the salt dish, with the right hand resting on the table, grasping the bag.
If a double ear of corn were put over the looking glass, it prevented the house from being struck by lightning. I have seen corn stalks hung over a looking glass, and was told that it brought luck.
It was customary for farmers to leave a portion of their fields uncropped, which was a dedication to the evil spirit, and called good man's croft. The Church exerted itself for a long time to abolish this practice, but farmers, who are generally very superstitious, were afraid to discontinue the practice for fear of ill luck. I remember a farmer as late as 1825 always leaving a small piece of a field uncropped, but then did not know why. At length he gave the right of working these bits to a poor labourer, who did well with it, and in a few years the farmer cultivated the whole himself.
Water that had been used in baptism was believed to have virtue to cure many distempers. It was a preventive against witchcraft, and eyes bathed with it would never see a ghost.
To see a dot of soot hanging on the bars of the grate indicated a visit from a stranger. By clapping the hands close to it, if the current produced by this, blew it off at the first clap, the stranger would visit that day. Every clap indicated the day before the visit would be made. This is still a common practice, of which the following lines taken from _Glasgow Weekly Herald_, 1877, is a graphic illustration:--
"_Rab_-- Eh! Willie, come your wa's, and peace be wi' ye; Wi' a' my heart, I'm truly glad to see ye. Wee Geordie, wha sat gazing in the fire, In that prophetic mood I oft admire, Declar'd he saw a stranger on the grate-- And Geordie's auguries are true as fate. He gied his hands a dap wi' a' his micht, And said that stranger's coming here the nicht, Wi' the first clap it's off. Ye see how true Appears the future on wee Geordie's view. What's in the wind, or what may be the news, That brings ye here, in heedless waste o' shoes?"
An eclipse of the sun was looked on as an omen of coming calamity. This is a very ancient superstition, and remained with us to a very late date, if it is even yet extinct. In 1597, during an eclipse of the sun, it is stated by Calderwood that men and women thought the day of judgment was come. Many women swooned, the streets of Edinburgh was full of crying, and in fear some ran to the kirk to pray. I remember an eclipse about 1818, when about three parts of the sun was covered. The alarm in the village was very great, indoor work was suspended for the time, and in several families prayers were offered for protection, believing that it portended some awful calamity; but when it passed off there was a general feeling of relief.
Fishers on the West Coast believe that were they to set their nets so that in any way it would encroach upon the Sabbath, the herrings would leave the district. Two years ago I was told that herrings were very plentiful at one time at Lamlash, but some thoughtless person set his net on a Sabbath evening. He caught none, and the herrings left and never returned.
I know several persons who refuse to have their likeness taken lest it prove unlucky; and give as instances the cases of several of their friends who never had a day's health after being photographed.
In addition to the many forms of superstition which we have been recalling, there were, and still are a great many superstitions connected with the phenomenon of dreaming, but as the notions in this series were very varied, differing very much in different localities, and everywhere subject less or more to the fancy of the interpreter, and as I believe that the notions and practices now in vogue in this connection are of comparatively recent origin, I will not enter upon the subject.
APPENDIX.
YULE, BELTANE, & HALLOWE'EN FESTIVALS:
_Survivals of Ancient Sun and Fire Worship._
History and prehistoric investigations have shown quite clearly that prehistoric man worshipped the Sun, the giver and vivifier of all life, as the supreme God. To the sun they offered sacrifices, and at stated periods celebrated festivals in his honour; and at these festivals bread and wine and meat were partaken of, with observances very similar in many respects to the practices of the Jews during their religious feasts. But although the sun was the supreme deity, other objects were also worshipped as subordinate deities. These objects, however, were generally in some manner representative of sun attributes; for example, the Moon was worshipped as the spouse of the Sun, Venus as his page. The pleiades and other constellations, and single stars were also deified; the rainbow and the lightning were sun servants, the elements, the sun's offspring. Many animals and trees were reverenced as representatives of sun attributes. Above all, fire was worshipped as the truest symbol of the sun upon earth, and all offerings and sacrifices in honour of the sun were presented through fire; thus sun and fire worship became identified.
In Britain sun-worship appears to have been purer in prehistoric than it afterwards was in historic times, purer also than the sun-cult of historic Egypt, Greece, or Rome; that is, there appears to have been in British sun-worship less of polytheism than prevailed in Egypt, Greece, or Rome. But during the historic period, the numerous invasions and the colonizations of different portions of this country by the Romans and other nations, who brought with them their special religious beliefs and formulæ of worship, caused the increase of polytheism by the commingling of the foreign and native elements of belief, and later on, these were mixed with Christianity, and in these mixings all the elements became modified, so that now it is very difficult to separate with certainty the aboriginal, invasional, and Christian elements.
From many indications it seems more than probable that the sun-cult in prehistoric Britain was very similar, even in many minor points, to the solar worship of the ancient Peruvians. At the same time, there is not the slightest probability that these two widely separated sun-cults ever had a common point of historical connection, nor, in order to explain their similarities, is such an historical explanation necessary. Quite sufficient is the explanation that both possessed in common a human nature, emotional and intellectual, moving on the same plane of childlike intelligence, and that both from this common standpoint had regard to the same striking and regularly recurring scenes of natural phenomena. Prescott thus describes the worship of these ancient Peruvians:--"The Sun was their primary God; to it was built a vast temple in the capital, more radiant with gold than that of Solomon's; and every city had a temple dedicated to the sun, and blasphemy against the sun was punished with death. The principal festivals of the year were at the equinoxes and solstices. That at midsummer was the grandest. It was preceded by a three days' fast; then every one who had time and money visited the city. Great fires were kindled from the sun's rays or by friction, from which sacred fires people kindled their hearth;" all household fires having previously been extinguished. Poor countries and districts, where the arts were in a backward condition, instead of having temples like the Peruvians, dedicated mountains and stone circles to the great luminary. It is the all but universal opinion that in this country, centuries before the Christian era, the religion of the people was Druidism; but this is merely the name of a system, and is equivalent to our saying that the present religion of our country is Presbyterianism, a statement which conveys no idea of the nature of our religious worship. The Druids were a priestly order who governed the country, and directed the worship of the people, the principal objects of worship being, as we have already said, the sun and fire. "The Druids," says the late Rev. James Rust, "formed an ecclesiastico-political association, and professed to explain the deep mysteries respecting God and man, and were the sacerdotal rulers, and called in consequence Druids or mystery-keepers. They were not allowed to commit anything to writing respecting their mysteries, and no one was allowed to enter their order till after a prolonged probation, terminating in swearing most solemnly to keep their mysteries secret for ever; and by this means they obtained great power and influence over all classes of the people."
Concerning the name Druid, the writer in the _Encyclopedia Metropolitana_ says, "The name Druid is derived from _deru_, an oak." The Druids were an order of priests; they were divided into three classes, resembling the Persian magi. The first class were the Druids proper; they were the highest nobility, to whom was entrusted all religious rites and education. The second class were the bards; they were principally employed in public instruction, which was given in verse. The third class was called _Euvates_; whose office it was to deliver the responses of the oracles, and to attend the people who consulted them. The knowledge of astronomy and computation of time possessed by the Druids was of a high order, and, no doubt, was the form of worship imported from Chaldea.
It is known that the Phoenicians had colonized Britain at least 1000 years B.C., and doubtless they would bring with them their form of worship, their gods being the sun, the moon, and fire. We may here find a very early source for the institution of sun-worship in these islands, if we can believe that such a very partial colonization as was effected by the Phoenicians could work a religious similarity throughout the entire island. I think it probable that sun-worship existed before the Phoenicians came to the island, but they may have elevated its practice. Following the writer in the _Encyclopedia Metropolitana_, we are told that in addition to their worship of the sun, the Druids "held sacred the spirits of their ancestors, paid great honour to mountains, lakes, and groves. Groves of oak were their temples, and their places of worship were open to heaven, such as stone circles. They had also a ceremony of baptism, dipping in the sacred lake, as an initiatory rite, and had also a sacrament of bread and wine. They paid great reverence to the egg of the serpent, the seed of the oak, and above all, the mistletoe that grew upon the oak; and they offered in sacrifice to the sun and fire, men and animals."
Many of the localities where their worship was observed in this country can still be identified through the names which these places still bear. One or two are here given, because they refer to sun-worship:--
Grenach (in Perthshire), means _Field of the Sun_.
Greenan (a stream in Perthshire), means _River of the Sun_.
Balgreen (a town in Perthshire and other counties), means _Town of the Sun_.
Grian chnox (Greenock), means _Knoll of the Sun_.
Granton, means _Sun's Fire_.
Premising, therefore, that sun-worship and Druidical customs form the original base of all our old national festivals, we will now direct attention to the great festival of
_YULE._
The term _Yule_ was the name given to the festival of the winter solstice by our northern invaders, and means _the Festival of the Sun_. One of the names by which the Scandinavians designated the sun was _Julvatter_, meaning _Yule-father_ or _Sun-father_. In Saxon the festival was called _Gehul_, meaning _Sun-feast_. In Danish it is _Juul_; in Swedish _Oel_. Chambers supposes that the name is from a root word meaning _wheel_. We have no trace of the name by which the Druids knew this feast. The Rev. Mr. Smiddy in his book on _Druidism in Ireland_, says, "Their great feast was that called in the Irish tongue _Nuadhulig_, meaning _new all heal_, or new mistletoe. When the day came the priests assembled outside the town, and the people gathered shouting _all heal_. Then began a solemn procession into the forests in search of the mistletoe growing on the favourite oak. When found, the priests ascended the tree, and cut down the divine plant with a golden knife, which was secured below upon a linen cloth of spotless white; two white bulls were then conducted to the spot for the occasion, and there sacrificed to the sun god. The plant was then brought home with shouts of joy, mingled with prayers and hymns, and then followed a general religious feast, and afterwards scenes of boisterous merriment, to which all were admitted."
From other accounts of this sun feast at the winter solstice in this country, we are given to understand that besides white bulls there were also human victims offered in sacrifice. The mistletoe gathered was divided among the people, who hung the sprays over their doorways as a protection from evil influences, and as a propitiation to the sylvan deities, and to form sheltering places for those fairy beings during the frosts. The day after the sacrifices was kept as a day of rejoicing, neighbours visited each other with gifts, and with expressions of good will.
From all I have been able to gather respecting this great sun feast at the winter solstice as it was celebrated in this country in prehistoric times, I am of opinion that the sacrifices were offered to the sun on the shortest day, to propitiate his return, and that that day was a day of great solemnity, but that the day following when the mistletoe was distributed and hung up, was a day of rejoicing and thanksgiving on this account, that the sacrifices had proved acceptable and efficacious, the sun having returned again to begin his course for another year, and this day was the first day of the year.
I am aware that the Romans appointed the first of January as the first day of the year as early as B.C. 600, and dedicated it to the goddess _Stranoe_. This, however, could not affect the inhabitants of Britain, at least not until the Roman invasion, and this influence did not reach our northern counties. There can be little doubt, I think, that the great festival of the Romans, the Saturnalia, held in honour of _Saturn_, the father of the gods, and which lasting seven days, including the winter solstice, was introduced into this country, and in course of time became identified with the Druidical festival of the natives. Other elements conspired to modify the ancient druidical festival. After the Romans withdrew their armies from the island at the commencement of the fifth century, other invaders took their place. Saxons, Jutes, Angles, and Normans occupied large tracts of the country; but as these were mostly all sun-worshippers, their festivals and ceremonies would, for the most part, coincide with the native usages, and whatever peculiarities they might bring with them in the matter of formulas, would take root in the localities where they were settled, and eventually the indigenous and introduced formulas would coalesce. Another element which materially influenced and, _vice versa_, was materially influenced by Pagan formulæ, was Christianity. Introduced into Rome at a very early period, it was for a long time opposed as subversive of the established religion of the empire. Now, during the festival of the Saturnalia, the Romans decorated their houses, both inside and out, with evergreens, the Christian converts refraining from this were easily discovered and set upon by the people, were brought before the judges and condemned, in many cases, to death, for their infidelity to the national gods. But as a result of this severity the Christians learned to be politic, and during the Saturnalia, hung evergreens round their houses, while they kept festival within doors in commemoration of the birth of Christ. This Christian festival, with its heathen attachments, soon spread throughout the Roman empire, and thus became introduced into Britain also. It appears however, that the day on which this feast was kept differed in different localities, until towards the middle of the fourth century Julius I., Bishop of Rome, appointed the 25th December as the festival day for the whole Church, an edict which was universally obeyed. As was to be expected, many of the ceremonies and superstitious beliefs emanating from the Saturnalia were merged in the customs of the Christian feast, and do still survive in modified forms till the present day. In many of our Christmas customs we can thus perceive the influence of the self-preservation policy of the early Roman Christians, and in the survival of many other pagan customs in this and other of our festivals, we can trace the influence of another policy, the worldly-wise policy of the Roman Church.
At the close of the sixth century, Pope Gregory sent St. Augustine, or Austin, to this country as a missionary, and by his preaching, many thousands of the people were converted to Christianity. This Pope's instructions to Augustine concerning his treatment of heathen festivals, were that "the heathen temples were not to be destroyed, but turned into Christian churches; that the oxen killed in sacrifice should still be killed with rejoicing, but their bodies given to the poor, and that the refreshment booths round the heathen temples should be allowed to remain as places of jollity and amusement for the people on Christian festivals, for it is impossible to cut abruptly from hard and rough minds all their old habits and customs. He who wishes to reach the highest place must rise by steps, and not by jumps."
From the enunciation of this policy, we can readily understand how the festive observances connected with heathen worship remained in the Christian observance. I have stated what is supposed to have been the Druidical manner of keeping this festival of the winter solstice, but I have not seen any account of how the festival was observed in this country when Augustine arrived as missionary. I have no information concerning the manner in which the oxen were sacrificed, nor the character of the refreshment booths round the temples. We know that there were booths in connection with heathen temples where women were kept, but whether this practice was indigenous in Britain, or was imported into this country by the Romans, or whether Pope Gregory may have written without any special knowledge of the customs here, but merely from his knowledge of heathen customs in general, we do not know. Nothing is said in these instructions about changing the day of keeping the festival from the solstice to the 25th of December. It is probable that no change of date was made at this time, at all events we may, from the following circumstance, infer that the change, if made, did not reach the northern portion of the island. Haco, King of Norway, in the the tenth century fixed the 25th December as the day for keeping the feast of Yule. King Haco's fixing on this particular date would be a resultant from the Romish edict, for the Norwegians were at this time Christians, although their Christianity was a conglomerate of heathen superstition and church dogma.
According to Jamieson, the eve of Yule was termed by the Northmen _Hoggunott_, meaning Slaughter night, probably because then the cattle for the coming feast were killed. During the feast, one of the leading toasts was called _minnie_, meaning the cup of remembrance, and Dr. Jamieson thinks that the popular cry which has come down to our times as _Hogmany, trol-lol-lay_, was originally _Hogminne, thor loe loe_, meaning the feast of Thor. After the Reformation, the Scotch transferred Hogmanay to the last day of December, as a preparation day for the New Year. The practice of children going from door to door in little bands, singing the following rhyme, was in vogue at the beginning of this century in country places in the West of Scotland:--
"Rise up, gudewife, and shake your feathers, Dinna think that we are beggars, We're girls and boys come out to-day, For to get our Hogmanay, Hogmanay, trol-lol-lay.
"Give us of your white bread, and not of your gray, Or else we'll knock at your door a' day."
This rhyme has a stronger reference to Yule or Christmas than to the New Year, and is doubtless a relic of pre-Reformation times.
At the Reformation, the Scottish Church, probably following the dictum of Calvin, who condemned Yule as a pagan festival, forbade the people to observe it because of its heathen origin; but probably the more potent reason was that it was a Romish feast, for no objection was made against keeping the New Year or _hansell Monday_, on which occasion practices similar to those of Yule were observed, and I believe it was the non-condemnation of these later festivals which enabled the Scottish Church to abolish Yule. In fact, it would appear that the Yule practices were simply transferred from a few days earlier to a few days later, and thereby retained their original connection with the close of the year. Prior to the Church interference there is no evidence that the first of January was observed by the people as a general feast, but even with this safety valve of a popular and yearly festival, the Church encountered great difficulty in abolishing Yule. A few instances of the opposition of the people will suffice.
The Glasgow Kirk Session, on the 26th December, 1583, had five persons before them who were ordered to make public repentance, because they kept the superstitious day called Yule. The _baxters_ were required to give the names of those for whom they had baked Yule bread, so that they might be dealt with by the Church. Ten years after this, in 1593, an Act was again passed by the Glasgow Session against the keeping of Yule, and therein it was ordained that the keepers of this feast were to be debarred from the privileges of the Church, and also punished by the magistrates.
Notwithstanding these measures, the people still inclined to observe Yule, for fifty-six years after, in 1649, the General Assembly appointed a commission to make report of the public practices, among others, "The druidical customs observed at the fires of _Beltane_, _Midsummer_, _Hallowe'en_, and _Yule_." In the same year appears the following minute in the session-book of the Parish of Slains.--(See Rust's _Druidism Exhumed_.)
26th Nov., 1649.--"The said day, the minister and elders being convened in session, and after invocation of the name of God, intimate that Yule be not kept, but that they yoke their oxen and horse, and employ their servants in their service that day as well as on other work days."
Dr. Jamieson quotes the opinion of an English clergyman in reference to such proceedings of the Scotch Church:--"The ministers of Scotland, in contempt of the holy-day observed by England, cause their wives and servants to spin in open sight of the people upon Yule day, and their affectionate auditors constrain their servants to yoke their plough on Yule day, in contempt of Christ's nativity. Which our Lord has not left unpunished, for their oxen ran wud, and brak their necks and lamed some ploughmen, which is notoriously known in some parts of Scotland." By going back to the time of the Reformation, and finding what then were the practices of the people in the celebration of the Yule festival, and then by comparing these with the practices in vogue at the commencement of this century during the New Year festivities, we shall be led to conclude that the principal change effected by the Church was only respecting the time of the feasts, and we can thus perceive that the veto was not directed against the practices _per se_, but only against the conjunction of these practices, Pagan in their origin, with a feast commemorative of the birth of Christ. As they could not hold Christmas without retaining the Yule practices along with it, they resolved to abolish both.
Let us then pursue this retrospect and comparison. About the time of the Reformation the day preceding Yule was a day of general preparation. Houses were cleaned out and borrowed articles were returned to their owners. Work of all kind was stopped, and a general appearance of completion of work was established; yarn was reeled off, no lint was allowed to remain on the rock of the wheel, and all work implements were laid aside. In the evening cakes were baked, one for each person, and duly marked, and great care was taken that none should break in the firing, as such an accident was a bad omen for the person whose cake met with the mishap. These cakes were eaten at the Yule breakfast. A large piece of wood was placed upon the fire in such time that it would be kindled before twelve p.m., and extreme care was taken that the fire should not go out, for not only was it unlucky, but no one would oblige a neighbour, with a kindling on Yule.
On Yule eve those possessing cattle went to the byre and stable and repeated an _Ave Marie_, and a _Paternoster_, to protect their cattle from an evil eye.
On Yule morning, attention was paid to the first person who entered the house, as it was important to know whether such a person were lucky or otherwise. It was an unfriendly act to enter a house on Yule day without bringing a present of some kind. Nothing was permitted to be taken out of the house on that day; this prohibition of course, did not extend to such things as were taken for presents. Servants or members of the family who had gone out in the morning, when they returned to the house brought in with them something, although it might only be some trivial article, say for instance, garden stuff. This was done that they might bring, or, at least, not cause bad luck to the household. Masters or parents gave gifts to their servants and children, and owners of cattle gave their beasts, with their own hand their first food on Yule morning. After mass in church, a table was spread in the house with meat and drink, and all who entered were invited to partake. On this day neighbours and relations visited each other, bearing with them meat and drink warmed with condiments, and as they drank they expressed mutual wishes for each other's welfare. If not a Christian day, it was at least a day of good will to men. In the evening, the great family feast was held. In the more northern parts, where the Scandinavian national element was principally settled, a boar's head was the correct dish at this feast, and, by the better class, was always provided; but the common people were content with venison, beef, and poultry, beginning their feast with a dish of plum porridge. A large candle, prepared for the occasion, was lighted at the commencement, and it was intended to keep in light till twelve p.m., and if it went out before it was regarded as a bad omen for the next year; and what of it was left unconsumed at twelve o'clock was carefully laid past, to be used at the dead wake of the heads of the family.
Now, let us compare with this the practices current at Hogmanay (31st December), and New Year's Day, about the commencement of this century. In doing so, I will pass over without notice many superstitious observances which, though curious and interesting, belong rather to the general fund of superstitious belief than to the special festival at New Year, and confine myself to those which were peculiar to the time. In my grandfather's house, between sixty and seventy years ago, on the 31st December (_Hogmanay_), all household work was stopped, rock emptied, yarn reeled and _hanked_, and wheel and reel put into an outhouse. The house itself was white-washed and cleaned. A block of wood or large piece of coal was put on the fire about ten p.m., so that it would be burning briskly before the household retired to bed. The last thing done by those who possessed a cow or horse was to visit the byre or stable, and I have been told that it was the practice with some, twenty years before my recollection, to say the Lord's Prayer during this visit. After rising on New Year's Day, the first care of those who possessed cattle was to visit the byre or stable, and with their own hands give the animals a feed. Burns followed this habit, and refers to it in one of his poems:--
"A gude New Year I wish thee, Maggy, Hae, there's a rip to thy auld baggie."
The following was the practice in my father's house in Partick, between fifty and sixty years ago, on New Year's day:--On _Hogmanay_ evening, children were all washed before going to bed. An oat bannock was baked for each child: it was nipped round the edge, had a hole in the centre, and was flavoured with carvey (carroway) seed. Great care was taken that none of these bannocks should break in the firing, as such an occurrence was regarded as a very unlucky omen for the child whose bannock was thus damaged. It denoted illness or death during the year. Parents sat up till about half-past eleven, when the fire was covered, and every particle of ash swept up and carried out of the house. All retired to bed before twelve o'clock, as it was unlucky not to be in bed as the New Year came in. A watchful eye was kept on the fire lest it should go out, for such an event was regarded as very unlucky, and they would neither give nor receive a light from any one on New Year's day. Neither fire, ashes, nor anything belonging to the house was taken out of it on that day. In the morning we children got our bannocks to breakfast. They were small, and it was unlucky to leave any portion of them, although this was frequently done. The first-foot was an important episode. To visit empty-handed on this day was tantamount to wishing a curse on the family. A plane-soled person was an unlucky first-foot; a pious sanctimonious person was not good, and a hearty ranting merry fellow was considered the best sort of first-foot. It was necessary for luck that what was poured out of the first-foot's gift, be it whiskey or other drink, should be drunk to the dregs by each recipient, and it was requisite that he should do the same by their's. It was against rule for any portion to be left, but if there did happen to be an unconsumed remnant, it was cast out. With any subsequent visitor these particulars were not observed. I remember that one year our first-foot was a man who had fallen and broken his bottle, and cut and bleeding was assisted into our house. My mother made up her mind that this was a most unfortunate first-foot, and that something serious would occur in the family during that year. I believe had the whole family been cut off, she would not have been surprised. However, it was a prosperous year, and a bleeding first-foot was not afterwards considered bad. If anything extraordinary did occur throughout the year, it was remembered and referred to afterwards. One New Year's day something was stolen out of our house; that year father and mother were confined to bed for weeks; the cause and effect were quite clear. During the day neighbours visited each other with bottle and bun, every one overflowing with good wishes. In the evening the family, old and young, were gathered together, those who during the year were out at service, the married with their families, and at this meal the best the family could afford was produced. It was a happy time, long looked forward to, and long remembered by all.
_BELTANE._
Beltane or Beilteine means _Baals fire_, Baal (Lord) was the name under which the Phoenicians recognized their primary male god, the Sun: fire was his earthly symbol and the medium through which sacrifices to him were offered. Hence sun and fire-worship were identical. I am of opinion that originally the Beltane festival was held at the Spring equinox but that its original connection with the equinox, in process of time was forgotten, and it became a festival inaugurative of summer. There is some difference of opinion as to the particular day on which the Beltane festival was held in this country. Dr. Jamieson, Dr. R. Chambers, and others who have studied this subject say that the 1st May (old style) was Beltane day. Professor Veitch; in his _History and Poetry of the Scottish Border_, (p. 118,) says, speaking of the Druids:--"They worshipped the sun god, the representative of the bright side of nature--Baal, the fire-giver--and to him on the hill tops they lit the fire on the end of May, the Beltane." And again, in his remarks on _Peblis to the Play_, (p. 315,) he says:--"The play was not the name for a stage play, but indicated the sports and festivals which took place at Peebles annually at Beltane, the second of May, not the first of May, as is usually supposed. These had in all probability come in place of the ancient British practice of lighting fires on the hill tops in honour of Baal, the sun god, hence the name _Baaltein_, Beltane, i.e. Baal's fire. The Christian Church had so far modified the ceremonial as to substitute for the original idolatrous practice that of a day of rustic amusements. A fair or market at the same period which lasted for eight days had also been instituted by Royal charter. But even the practice of lighting fires on the hill tops was late in dying out, with the usual tenacity of custom it survived for long all memory of its original meaning."
The Professor writes very positively as to Beltane day being the second day of May, not the first day as is supposed. The Royal Charter granted to the Burgh of Peebles for holding a fair or market on Beltane day, is given in the Burgh Records of Peebles, p. 85:--"As also of holding, using, enjoying, and exercising within the foresaid Burgh weekly market days according to the use and custom of the said Burgh, together with three fairs, thrice in the year, the first thereof beginning yearly upon the third day of May, called Beltane day, the same to be held and continued for the space of forty-eight hours thereafter." The date of the Charter is 1621, but it is evident that the third of May had been previously kept as Beltane day. The Professor is also mistaken in stating that the Beltane fair of Peebles was to be kept for eight days. The third fair, held in August, continued eight days, but the fairs in May and June were kept for two days according to the Charter. That there were two days known as Beltane at the beginning of last century is evident from a book of Scotch proverbs published in 1721 by James Kelly, A.M., in which occurs the following,--
"You have skill of man and beast, Ye was born between the Beltans."
In all probability the discrepancy as to the day originated through the Church substituting a Christian festival for a heathen one; and although the date was changed, yet through force of custom the name of the old festival was retained, and in localities where the power of the Church was comparatively weak, the older, the original day for the festival would probably be kept as well as the newly appointed Church festival. This view of the matter is rendered probable from the fact that the Church did institute a great festival, to be held on the third of May, to commemorate the finding of the cross of Christ. The legend is as follows:--When the Empress Helena was at Jerusalem about the end of the third century, she discovered the cross on which Christ was crucified, and had it conveyed to the great church built by Constantine her son. This cross was exhibited yearly to the people, and many miracles were wrought by it. A festival, as I have said, was instituted in commemoration of the discovery, and this was held on the third of May, and was called _Rood_ or _rude_ day. Churches were built and dedicated to the Holy Rood, among which was that which is now Holyrood Palace. Where the Church was powerful, as in Edinburgh and Peebles, Rood day would be the important festival, and Beltane would gradually become incorporated with it, the names Beltane day and Rood day becoming synonymous. Thus we may account for Edinburgh and Peebles keeping Beltane on the third day of May, while in Perth and other northern counties where the Church influence was weaker, the festival would be kept according to the older custom on the first of May.
In Druidical times the people allowed their fires to go out on Beltane eve, and on Beltane day the priests met on a hill dedicated to the Sun, and obtained fire from heaven. When the fire was obtained, sacrifices were offered, and the people danced round the fire with shoutings till the sacrifices were consumed; after which they received portions of the sacred fire with which to rekindle their hearths for another twelve months. Besides mountains, there were evidently other localities where sacrifices and the ritual of Sun-worship were observed, and which received appropriate names in accordance with their character as sacred places. Some of these names still survive, as for instance:--
_Ard-an-teine_--The light of the fire.
_Craig-an-teine_--The rock of the fire.
_Auch-an-teine_--The field of the fire.
_Tillie-bet-teine_--The knoll of the fire; and so through a great many other names of places we find traces of the Baal and fire worship. So widespread and numerous are the names which recall this ritual, that we can see quite clearly that the spirit of their religion thoroughly dominated the people. In Ireland, at Beltane, the Pagan Kings are said to have convoked the people for State purposes. The last of these heathen kings convoked a grand assembly of the nation to meet with him on _Tara_, at the feast of Beltane, which the old chroniclers say was the principal feast of the year.
Respecting this feast, Dr. Jamieson says, introducing a quotation from O'Brien, "_Ignis Bei Dei Aseatica ea lineheil_, or May-day, so called from large fires which the Druids were used to light on the summits of the highest hills, into which they drove four-footed beasts, using certain ceremonies to expiate for the sins of the people. The Pagan ceremony of lighting these fires in honour of the Asiatic god Belus gave its name to the entire month of May, which to this day is called _Me-na-bealtine_, in the Irish, _Dor Keating_." He says again, speaking of these fires of _Baal_, that the cattle were driven through them and not sacrificed, the chief design being to avert contagious disorders from them for the year. And quoting from an ancient glossary, O'Brien says, "The Druids lighted two solemn fires every year, and drove all four-footed beasts through them, in order to preserve them from contagious distempers during the current year." I am inclined to think that these notices describe a sort of modified or Christianized Beltane, that driving the cattle through the fire was a substitute for the older form of sacrificing cattle to the sun. Until very lately in different parts of Ireland, it was the common practice to kindle fires in milking yards on the first day of May, and then men, women, and children leaped through them, and the cattle were driven through in order to avert evil influences. They were also in the habit of quenching their fires on the last day of April, and rekindling them on the first day of May. In certain localities in Perthshire, so lately as 1810, (I have referred to this before), the inhabitants collected and kindled a fire by friction, and through the fire thus kindled they drove their cattle in order to protect them against disease, and at the same time they held a feast of rejoicing.
As already mentioned, the Romans held several festivals at the beginning of summer, and many of their observances on these occasions were introduced into this country, and became incorporated with the Beltane practices. For example, the Romans held a festival in honour of _Pales_, the goddess of flocks and sheepfolds. The feast was termed _Palilia_. Lempriere states that some of the ceremonies accompanying the feast consisted in "burning heaps of straw, and in leaping over them; no sacrifices were offered, but purifications were made with the smoke of horse's blood, and with the ashes of a calf that had been taken from the belly of its mother after it had been sacrificed, and with the ashes of beans; the purification of the flocks was also made with the smoke of sulphur, also of the olive, the pine, the laurel, and rosemary. Offerings of mild cheese, boiled wine, and cakes of millet were afterwards made. Some call this festival _Palilia_, because the sacrifices were offered to the divinity for the fecundity of their flocks." There was also a large cake prepared for _Pales_, and a prayer was addressed to the divinity by shepherds, as thus given by Dr. Jamieson:--
"O let me propitious find, And to the shepherd and his sheep be kind; Far from my flocks drive noxious things away, And let my flocks in wholesome pastures stray. May I, at night, my morning's number take, Nor mourn a theft the prowling wolf may make. May all my rams the ewes with vigour press, To give my flocks a yearly due increase."
The Romans held another festival in honour of the goddess _Flora_. It began on the 28th April, and lasted three days. The people wore garlands of flowers, and carried them about with branches of newly-budded trees. There was much licentiousness connected with this feast.
Reference has already been made to another Roman festival which was celebrated early in May. This was called the _Lamuralia_, and its purport was to propitiate the favour of the ghosts or spirits of their ancestors. I am of opinion that the English May feasts are a survival of the _Floralia_, and, as kept during the middle ages, were not free from some of the indecencies of the _Floralia_. In my remembrance, the first of May, in the country west of Glasgow, was honoured by decking the houses with tree branches and flowers. Horses were also similarly decked. The Church did not attempt to abolish these heathen festivals, but endeavoured to dominate them, and substitute for legends of heathen origin connected with them legends of Church origin. In this they partly succeeded. The following account of the Beltane festival, as it was kept in some districts in Perthshire at the close of last century, taken from the statistical accounts of certain parishes, will shew how persistent these ancient customs were, and also how some other festivals latterly became amalgamated and identified with Beltane:--
"In the Parish of Callander, upon the first day of May," says the minister of the parish, "all the boys in the town or hamlet meet on the moors. They cut a table on the green sod, of a round shape, to hold the whole company. They kindle a fire, and dress a repast of eggs and milk in the consistence of a custard. They knead a cake of oatmeal, which is baked at the fire upon a stone. After the custard is eaten up, they divide the cake into as many portions, and as similar as possible, as there are persons in the company. They blacken one of these portions with charcoal until it is perfectly black. They put all the bits of cake into a bonnet. Every one blindfolded draws a portion--he who holds the bonnet is entitled to the last. Who draws the black bit is the devoted person to be sacrificed to Baal, whose favour they mean to implore in rendering the year productive of substance for man and beast. There is little doubt of these human sacrifices being once offered in the country, but the youth who has got the black bit must leap through the flame of the fire three times." I have myself conversed with old men who, when boys, were present at, and took part in these observances; and they told me that in their grandfathers' time it was the men who practised these rites, but as they were generally accompanied with much drinking and riot, the clergy set their faces against the customs, and subjected the parties observing them to church discipline, so that in course of time the practices became merely the frolic of boys.
In the Parish of Logierait, Beltane is celebrated by the shepherds and cowherds in the following manner. They assemble in the fields and dress a dinner of milk and eggs. This dish they eat with a sort of cake baked for the occasion, having small lumps or nipples raised all over its surface. These knobs are not eaten, but broken off, and given as offerings to the different supposed powers or influences that protect or destroy their flocks, to the one as a thank-offering, to the other as a peace-offering.
Mr. Pennant, in his _Tour through Scotland_, thus describes the Beltane observances as they were observed at the end of last century. "The herds of every village hold their Beltane (a rural sacrifice.) They cut a square trench in the ground, leaving the turf in the middle. On that they make a fire of wood, on which they dress a large caudle of eggs, oatmeal, butter, and milk, and bring besides these plenty of beer and whiskey. Each of the company must contribute something towards the feast. The rites begin by pouring a little of the caudle upon the ground, by way of a libation. Every one then takes a cake of oatmeal, on which are raised nine square knobs, each dedicated to some particular being who is supposed to preserve their herds, or to some animal the destroyer of them. Each person then turns his face to the fire, breaks off a knob, and, flinging it over his shoulder, says--'_This I give to thee_,' naming the being whom he thanks, '_preserver of my sheep_,' &c.; or to the destroyer, '_This I give to thee, (O fox or eagle)_,' _spare my lambs_,' &c. When this ceremony is over they all dine on the caudle."
The shepherds in Perthshire still hold a festival on the 1st of May, but the practices at it are now much modified.
As may readily be surmised, there were a great many superstitious beliefs connected with Beltane, some of which still survive, and tend to maintain its existence. Dew collected on the morning of the first day of May is supposed to confer witch power on the gatherer, and give protection against an evil eye. To be seen in a field at day-break that morning, rendered the person seen an object of fear. A story is told of a farmer who, on the first of May discovered two old women in one of his fields, drawing a hair rope along the grass. On being seen, they fled. The farmer secured the rope, took it home with him, and hung it in the byre. When the cows were milked every spare dish about the farm-house was filled with milk, and yet the udders remained full. The farmer being alarmed, consigned the rope to the fire, and then the milk ceased to flow.
It was believed that first of May dew preserved the skin from wrinkles and freckles, and gave a glow of youth. To this belief Ferguson refers in the following lines:--
"On May day in a fairy ring, We've seen them round St. Anthon's spring, Frae grass the caller dew to wring, To wet their een; And water clear as crystal spring, To synd them clean."
_MIDSUMMER._
To sun worshippers no season would be better calculated to excite devotional feelings towards the great luminary than the period when he attained the zenith of his strength. It is probable, therefore, that as his movements must have been closely observed, and his various phases regarded by the people, in the language of Scripture, "for signs and for seasons, for days and for years," that the turning points in the sun's yearly course, the solstices, would naturally become periods of worship. That the Summer solstice was an important religious period is rendered probable from the following curious observation concerning Stonehenge, which appeared in the Notes and Queries portion of the _Scotsman_ newspaper for July 31, 1875. The _Scotsman's_ correspondent states that "a party of Americans went on midsummer morning this year to see the sun rise upon Stonehenge. They found crowds of people assembled. Stonehenge," continues the writer, "may roughly be described as comprising seven-eighths of a circle, from the open ends of which there runs eastward an avenue having upright stones on either side. At some distance beyond this avenue, but in a direct line with its centre, stands one solitary stone in a sloping position; in front of which, but at a considerable distance, is an eminence or hill. The point of observation chosen by the excursion party was the stone table or altar near the head of, and within the circle, directly looking down. The morning was unfavourable, but, fortunately, just as the sun was beginning to appear over the top of the hill, the mist disappeared, and then, for a few moments, the onlookers stood amazed at the spectacle presented to their view. While it lasted, the sun, like an immense ball, appeared actually to rest on the isolated stone of which mention has been made. Now, in this," says a writer in the _New Quarterly Magazine_ for January, 1876, commenting upon the statement of the _Scotsman's_ correspondent, "we find strong proof that Stonehenge was really a mighty almanack in stone; doubtless also a temple of the sun, erected by a race which has long perished without intelligible record."
I think it is not a very fanciful supposition to suppose, from the still existing names of places in this country bearing reference to sun-worship, that there were other places than Stonehenge which were used as stone almanacks "for signs and for seasons," and also for temples. _Grenach_ in Perthshire, meaning _Field of the Sun_, where there is a large stone circle, may have been such a place; and _Grian-chnox_, now Greenock, meaning _Knoll of the Sun_, may have originally marked the place where the sun's rising became visible at a certain period of the year, from a stone circle in the neighbourhood. As far as I have been able to discover, there remains to us little trace of the manner in which the midsummer feast was kept in this country in prehistoric times, but so far as traces do remain, they appear to indicate that it was celebrated much after the same manner as the Scottish Celts are said to have celebrated Beltane. Indeed, the Celtic Irish hold their _Beilteme_ feast on the 21st June, and their fires are kindled on the tops of hills, and each member of a family is, in order to secure good luck, obliged to pass through the fire. On this occasion also, a feast is held. A similar practice was common in West Cornwall at midsummer. Fires were kindled, and the people danced round them, and leaped singly through the flames to ensure good luck and protection against witchcraft. The following passage occurs in _Traditions and Hearthside Stories of West Cornwall_, by William Bottreill, 1873:--"Many years ago, on Midsummer eve, when it became dusk, very old people in the west country would hobble away to some high ground whence they obtained a view of the most prominent high hill, such as Bartinney-Chapel, Cambrae, Sancras Bickan, Castle-au-dinas, Cam-Gulver, St. Agnes-Bickan, and many other beacon hills far away to the north and east which vied with each other in their midsummer night blaze. They counted the fires, and drew a presage from the number of them. There are now but few bonfires to be seen on the western heights; yet we have observed that Tregonan, Godolphin, and Carnwath hills, with others far away towards Redruth, still retain their Baal fires. We would gladly go many miles to see the weird-looking, yet picturesque dancers around the flames, on a cairn or high hill top, as we have seen them some forty years ago." The ancient Egyptians had their midsummer feasts, as also had the Greeks and Romans. During these festivals, we are told that the people, headed by the priests, walked in procession, carrying flowers and other emblems of the season in honour of their gods. Such processions were continued during the early years of the Christian Church, and the Christian priests in their vestments went into the fields to ask a blessing on the agricultural produce of the year. Towards the beginning of the twelfth century the Church introduced the _Feast of God_, and fixed the 19th June for its celebration. The eucharistic elements were declared to be the actual presence of God, and this, the consecrated Host or God himself was carried through the open streets by a procession of priests, the people turning out to do it honour, kneeling and worshipping as it passed. This feast of God may have absorbed some of the ancient midsummer practices, but the _Feast of St. John's Day_, which is held upon the 24th June, has in its customs a greater similarity to the ancient sun feast. On the eve of St. John's day, people went to the woods and brought home branches of trees, which they fixed over their doorways. Towards night of St. John's Day, bonfires were kindled, and round them the people danced with frantic mirth, and men and boys leaped through the flames. Leaping through the flames is a common practice at these survivals of sun festivals, and although done now, partly for luck and partly for sport, there can be little doubt but that originally human sacrifices were then offered to the sun god.
There was quite a host of curious superstitions connected with this midsummer feast, especially in Ireland and Germany, and many of these were similar to those connected with the feast of _Hallowe'en_ in Scotland. In Ireland, in olden times, it was believed that the souls of people left their sleeping bodies, and visited the place where death would ultimately overtake them; and there were many who, in consequence, would not sleep, but sat up all night. People also went out on St. John's eve to gather certain plants which were held as sacred, such as _the rose_, _the trifoil_, _St. John's wort_, and _vervain_, the possession of which gave them influence over evil. To catch the seed of the fern as it fell to the ground on St. John's eve, exactly at twelve o'clock, was believed to confer upon the persons who caught it the power of rendering themselves invisible at will.
In my opinion, the great prehistoric midsummer festival to the sun god has diverged into the two Church feasts, Eucharist and St. John's day; but St. John's day has absorbed the greater share of old customs and superstitious ideas, and so numerous are they that the most meagre description of them would yield matter for an hour's reading.
_HALLOWE'EN._
The northern nations, like the Hebrews, began their day in the evening. Thus we have Yule Eve, and Hallow Eve (Hallowe'en), the evenings preceding the respective feasts. The name Hallowe'en is of Christian origin, but the origin of the feast itself is hidden in ancient mythology. The Celtic name for the autumn festival was _Sham-in_, meaning Baal's Fire. The Irish Celts called it _Sainhain_, or _Sainfuin_; _Sain_, summer, and _Fuin_, end,--i.e., the end of summer. The Hebrews and Phoenicians called this festival _Baal-Shewin_, a name signifying the principle of order. The feast day in Britain and Ireland is the first of November. The Druids are said on this day to have sacrificed horses to the sun, as a thank-offering for the harvest. An Irish king, who reigned 400 A.D., commanded sacrifices to be made to a moon idol, which was worshipped by the people on the evening of _Sain-hain_. Sacrifices were also offered on this night to the spirits of the dead, who were believed to have liberty at this season to visit their old earthly haunts and their friends,--a belief this, which was entertained by many ancient nations, and was the origin of many of the curious superstitious customs still extant in this country on Hallowe'en. Dr. Smith, commenting in _Jamieson's Dictionary_ on the solemnities of Beltane, says, "The other of these solemnities was held upon Hallow Eve, which in Gaelic still retains the name of _Sham-in_,--this word signifying the Fire of Peace, or the time of kindling the fire for maintaining peace. It was at this season that the Druids usually met in the most central places of every country to adjust every dispute and decide every controversy. On that occasion, all the fires in the country were extinguished on the preceding evening, in order to be supplied next day by a portion of the holy fire which was kindled and consecrated by the Druids. Of this, no person who had infringed the peace, or become obnoxious by any breach of law, or guilty of any failure in duty, was to have share, till he had first made all the reparation and submission which the Druids required of him. Whoever did not, with the most implicit obedience, agree to this, had the sentence of excommunication passed against him, which was more dreaded than death; none being allowed to give him house or fire, or shew him the least office of humanity, under the penalty of incurring the same sentence." The ancient Romans held a great and popular festival at the end of February, called the _Ferralia_. At this season, they visited the graves of their departed friends, and offered sacrifices and oblations to the spirits of the dead; they believed that the spirits of the departed, both the good and the bad, were released on that particular night, and that, if they were not propitiated, these spirits would haunt throughout the coming year their undutiful living relatives. In all probability, though the time of celebration is different, these Roman ceremonies and the Hallowe'en ceremonies in this country had a common origin. In the year 610, the Bishop of Rome ordained that the heathen Pantheon should be converted into a Christian church, and dedicated to all the martyrs; and a festival was instituted to commemorate the event. This was held on the first of May, and continued to be held on this day till 834, when the time of celebration was altered to the first of November, and it was then called _All Hallow_, from a Saxon word, _Haligan_, meaning to keep holy. This change was doubtless made in order to supply a Christian substitute for some heathen festival--in all probability the festival of _Sham-in_, which, as we have seen, was an old Druidical feast. Some time after this alteration in the time of holding the feast in honour of the martyrs, in 993, another festival was instituted for the purpose of offering prayers for the souls of those in purgatory, and this feast was kept on the second of November, and was called _All Souls_. The following legend was either invented as a plausible reason for instituting this additional feast, or the legend, being previously well known and accepted as truth, was really the _bona fide_ reason for the institution:--"A pilgrim, returning from the Holy Land, was compelled by storm to land upon a rocky island, where he found a hermit, who told him that among the cliffs of the island was an opening into the infernal regions, through which huge flames ascended, and where the groans of the tormented were distinctly audible. The pilgrim, on his return, told the Abbot of Clugny of this, and the Abbot appointed the second day of November to be set apart for the benefit of souls in purgatory, which was to be kept by prayers and almsgiving." It is easy to perceive that, while in the festival of Hallowe'en we have the survival of the old Druidical festival of thank-offering to the sun-god for the ingathering of the fruits of the earth, we have also in these two festivals of _All Saints_ and _All Souls_ the survival of the ancient _Ferralia_, or festival to the dead, when offerings were made to both good and bad spirits, to prevent them haunting the living; and thus we can account for the prevalence of the numerous superstitions concerning ghosts and evil spirits connected with the festival of Hallowe'en. That these Church feasts were regarded as the substitute for the _Ferralia_ of Pagan Rome is verified by Father Meagan in his work on _The Mass_. We quote from Jamieson:--"Such was the devotion of the heathen on this day by offering sacrifices for the souls in purgatory, by praying at the graves, and performing processions round the churchyards with lighted tapers, that they called the month the month of pardons, indulgences, and absolutions for souls in purgatory; or, as Plutarch calls it, the purifying month, or season of purification, because the living and dead were supposed to be purged and purified on these occasions from their sins by sacrifices, flagellations, and other works of mortification." Plutarch, I think, must have referred to the month of February as the purifying month. Father Meagan has not referred to the change of date made by the Church. Doubtless the Christian Church, in instituting these festivals, intended, by divesting them of their heathen basis, to christianise the people; but, like Naaman of old, the worshippers, while they worshipped in the buildings in conformity with the regulations of their new teachers, yet retained many of their old Pagan beliefs and ceremonies, and even their teachers were not thoroughly de-Paganised,--and so the old and new commingled and crystallized together.
In all the four festivals we have been considering, there survive relics of fire-worship, and through all there runs a similarity of observance and belief; but the special practices are not everywhere joined to the same festival in all localities. In this part of the country, the special observances connected with Hallowe'en were, in other parts of the country, observed in connection with the summer festival. Now, however, we are glad to say, these superstitious ceremonies and beliefs in their old gross forms are fast passing away, or have become so modified that we can scarcely recognise their relations to the old fire-worship.
In 1860, I was residing near the head of Loch Tay during the season of the Hallowe'en feast. For several days before Hallowe'en, boys and youths collected wood and conveyed it to the most prominent places on the hill sides in their neighbourhood. Some of the heaps were as large as a corn-stack or hay-rick. After dark on Hallowe'en, these heaps were kindled, and for several hours both sides of Loch Tay were illuminated as far as the eye could see. I was told by old men that at the beginning of this century men as well as boys took part in getting up the bonfires, and that, when the fire was ablaze, all joined hands and danced round the fire, and made a great noise; but that, as these gatherings generally ended in drunkenness and rough and dangerous fun, the ministers set their faces against the observance, and were seconded in their efforts by the more intelligent and well-behaved in the community; and so the practice was discontinued by adults and relegated to school boys. In the statistical account of the parish of Callander, the same practice is referred to. It is stated that "When the bonfire was consumed, the ashes of the fire were carefully collected in the form of a circle, and a stone put in near the circumference for every person in the several families concerned in getting up the fire; and whatever stone is moved out its place or injured before next morning, the person represented by the stone is devoted or fey, and is supposed not to live twelve months from that day." In all probability this devoted person was in olden times offered as a sacrifice to the fire god on the great day of sacrifice, which was the festival day. The belief that the spirits of the dead were free to roam about on that night is still held by many in this country. Indeed, where the forms of the feast have all but disappeared, the superstitious auguries connected with it survive. Burns particularises very fully the formulæ of Hallowe'en, as practised in Ayrshire in his day, and as this poem is well known, it would be superfluous to follow it in detail here; but I cannot refrain from drawing attention to the suggestions which one of the practices which he mentions affords in favour of the supposition that it is a relic of an ancient form of appeal to the fire god--I refer to the practice of burning nuts. It seems likely that in ancient times the priests, who claimed prophetic power through the reading of auguries, used this method of deciding the future at this particular season of the year, and chiefly during the holding of the feast.
Although I have confined my remarks to the four feasts, Yule, Beltane, Midsummer, and Hallowe'en, because they are the oldest and most properly national, there were a number of other heathen feasts, emanating principally from Roman practice, which the Church converted into Christian feasts, notably what is now called Candlemass. On the second day of February, the Romans perambulated their city with torches and candles burning in honour of _Februa_; and the Greeks at this same period held their feast of lights in honour of Ceres. Pope Innocent explains the origin of this feast of Candlemass. He states that "The heathens dedicated this month to the infernal gods. At its beginning Pluto stole away Proserpine, and her mother Ceres sought for her in the night with lighted torches. In the beginning of this month the idolaters walked about the city with lighted candles, and as some of the holy fathers could not extirpate such a custom, they ordained that Christians should carry about candles in honour of the Virgin Mary." This method of keeping the feast of Candlemass does not now prevail in this country; so far as the laity are concerned, the festival may be said to have died out, but according to Dr. Brewer, the festival is kept by the Roman Catholic Church as the time for consecrating the candles used in the Church service.
Formerly there were other public festivals, as Lammas, Michaelmass, &c., which the Church had substituted for heathen feasts which have ceased to be public festivals, and I trust we may indulge the hope that the time is not far distant when, instead of all such festive relics of heathenism, the Church and people will substitute one daily festival of obedience to the honour of the founder of Christianity, viz., the festival of a righteous life.
INDEX.
Page.
Acts of Assembly against keeping Popular Festivals, 155 Acts of Sessions against keeping Yule, 155 Ague, A Cure for, 95 All Hallow's Festival, its Origin, 177 Animals in People's Stomachs, 103 Anthropomorphism, 5 Appendix, 143 Appointment of 25th December for Christmas, 152 Apple, The, Superstitions concerning, 122 Aspen, Superstitions connected with, the 124 Ash, Superstitions connected with, the 124 Astoreth, The, of the Jews, 10 Augustine's, St., or Austin's Mission, 152 Auguries connected with Funerals, 64 Aytoun on Fairyland, 21
Baal, Name of Sun-God, 10, 161 Babies Carried off by Fairies, 34, 40 Babies to be taken up a Stair first time taken out, 31 Bannocks at Yule and New-Year's Day, 160 Baptism, Early Practices at, 31 Baptismal Water, 140 Bedding at Weddings, 53 Beetles, Superstitions connected with, 116 Beilteine, Baal's Fire, 161 Belief in Fairies in this Country, 27 in Ghosts Visiting People, 176 in Witchcraft still Survives, 68 Beltane, 161 Customs in Ireland, 166 Festival in Perthshire, 168 Day, First of May, 162 Held in some Counties on 3rd May, 162 Birds Flying over a Person's Head, 114 Black Art, The, 75 Blessing the Candles to be Used in Church, 181 Bonfires at Hallowe'en, 179 Bonny Kilmeny, 22 Booths in connection with Temples, 153 Bottreill's Hearth Stories of West Cornwall, 173 Boutree, or Bourtree, Defence against Evil-Eye, 126 Breaking Looking-Glass on the Wall, 137 Bride's Cake, Practices connected with, 51 Bull of Innocent VIII. against making Compacts with the Devil, 17
Candlemas, Relation of, to Festival of Februa, 181 Casting of Calf by Cows Prevented, 84 Cats Dying in the House not Lucky, 117 Caul, Child's, its Influence, 32 Celtic Irish hold Beltane at Midsummer, 172 Celtic Names of Places indicate Sun-Worship, 149 Ceremonies on St. John's Day, 174 Changing of Babies by Fairies, 46 Charms and Counter Charms, 79 for Curing Diseases, 91, 93 Child Rowland in Elfland, 26 Children Cutting Teeth, 137 Cholera, its First Visit to this Country, 14 National Fast for, Refused, 15 Christianity consistent with Nature, 16 Christian Creeds not always consistent with Nature, 16 Christmas Fixed to be kept on the 25th December, 152 Church's, The, Enactments against Devil's Devices, 27 Church, The, Punishing Deviation from her Creed, 17 Clover, Four-Leaved, its Influence, 130 Coal Explosions, Prognostics concerning, 138 Cock Crowing with his Head to the Door, 114 Cold Tremour, foreboding Death, 138 Coral Beads, their Influence, 36 Cornwall, Beltane Fires in Midsummer, 172 Cows, Restive, foreboding Evil, 136 Cricket in the House, 114 Cure for an Evil Eye, 36 Cutting the Nails of Young Children, 139
Deaf and Dumb possessing Second Sight, 72 Death Warnings, 56 Defending the Bride against Evil Influences, 51, 54 Deid Bell, 66 Deification of Stars, 145 Devil conferring Supernatural Power, 28 Making Compacts with the, 77 Dew-Collecting on First May, 170 Different Nations modifying Customs, 151 Dirgy, or Dredgy, after Funerals, 63 Disease Transferred to the Lower Animals, 92, 96 Divining by Bible and Key, 106 by Cups, 110 by a Staff, 108 Double Ears of Corn, 139 Dousing Rod to find Springs or Mineral Veins, 109 Dress put on Wrong Side Out, 137 Druids, 147 Druidism in Ireland, 150 Druidical Customs at Beltane, 164 Duties of New-Married Wife in Old Times, 55
Ear Tingling, 137 Ecclesiastical Influence Leading to Wrong Ideas of God, 6 Eclipses Portending Evil, 141 Eggs Laid upon Good Friday, 114 Elder, or Bourtree, The, 125 English Opinions of Yule Feasts in Scotland, 156 Evil Eye, Influence of, 30, 35, 37 Exorcising Ghosts, 11 Extracts from Presbytery Records on Witchcraft, 67
Fairy Legend, A, 119 Fairies, What They Are, 26 Fairies, Brownies, and Elfs, by Rev. Mr. Kirk, 19 Fairyland, its Government, 21 Family Feasts at New-Year, 161 Fascinating Children Prevented, 139 Fasting Spittle, 98 Feast of God, 173 Feasts to Evil Spirits, 12 Ferralia Festival like Hallowe'en, 176 Ferns, Common, its Seed, 128 Festivals of Druids at Winter Solstice, 153 Fire, the Earthly Symbol of the Sun, 10 Fire-Worship in Scotland in 1810, 84 Fires Kindled on Mountains at Midsummer, 173 First of May Customs, 167 First-Footing at Yule, 156 First-Foot to Present a Gift, 160 Flora, Goddess, her Feast at Beltane, 167 Floralia, or First of May Observances, 167 Foot Itching, Sign of, 137 Formula for Exorcising Ghosts, 11 Forks, their First Use and Effects of, 15 Four-Leaved Clover, 130 Funeral Customs, 63 Old, in Highlands, 65
Guardian Angels, 59 Gems, their Significance, 102 Glamour, 132 Giants and Dwarfs of Middle Ages, 19 Girl's Petticoat Longer than Frock, Omen of, 137 Goat, Beliefs concerning, 119 Goodman's Croft, 140 Golden Rose, 129 Gods of the Babylonians, B.C. 2000, 7 Greeks in Classical Times, 8 God, Different Ideas concerning, 5 Haco Fixing 25th December for holding Christmas, 154 Hades, 11 Hallowe'en Practices, 175 Hallowe'en Practices in Perthshire, 180 Hand over Hand Divining, 110 Hand Itching, its Meaning, 137 Hansel Monday, 155 Hare Crossing Road, Seeing a, 117 Hazel, The, 125 Hen, A, Crowing like a Cock, 113 Herring-Fishing on Sabbath, its Consequences, 142 Hogmanay, 154 Hooping-Cough, Cure for the, 95 Holly, The, 123 Holy Fire, 176 Holyrood, Origin of, 163 Horse Shoe, Protection from Witchcraft, 139 Horse, A, Neighing Towards a House, 114 Human Hair in Birds' Nests, 114 Hydrophobia, How to Prevent, 101
Influence of Charms, 89 Influence of May Dew, 170 Influences, The Evil, Communicated by Dress, 39 Initial Letters of Man and Wife's Name, 138 Intermixing of Heathen with Christian Practices, 18 Intercourse held with Infernal Fiends, 17 Isabella Goudie's Confessions, 22 Itching of the Nose, 136
Jamieson, Dr. on Pales' Customs, 167
Killing Spiders, 115 Kirk, Rev. Mr., on the Nature of Fairies, 20 Knife Presented as a Gift, 138
Ladybirds, 116 Lammas Festival, 181 Lamuralia, an Ancient Festival, 167 Lee Penny, The, 95 Legend of Burd Ellen, 22 Legend of Purgatory, 177 Lily, The, 130 Like Wakes: and reasons for keeping them, 61 Love Charms, 89 Luck for new dress, How to procure, 137 Lucky Animals, 120 Lucky People to meet first, 32 as First Foot, 160
Making Effigies to Torment People, 77 Mandrake, its Influence, 90 Marriage Customs Sixty Years Ago, 46 Party meeting a Funeral, 51 Marrying in May, 43 Merlin the Wizard, 23 Metals made under certain Constellations, 93 Michælmas, 181 Midfinger free from Canker, 99 Midsummer Feast among the Ancients, 173 Festivals in this Country, 170 Milk Bewitched, 81 Milking the Tether, 75 Mistletoe Gathering, 150 its Influence, 124 Modern Superstitions, 34 Money given to Poor at Funerals, 64 Moon Worship, 98 a Female Deity, 10 Murders discovered by Bleeding of Corpse, 85 Murrain in Cattle Prevented, 84 Mutes have Supernatural Gifts, 72
Names of Places connected with Fire Worship, 164 with Sun Worship, 172 Natural Phenomena ascribed to Divinities, 9 New Year's Day, an Ancient Roman Festival, 151 Observances, 159 Festival, 154 New Moon, Prognostics, 98 New Zealand Divining, 108
Oak, a Sacred Tree, 131 Oaths to Satan, 88 O'Brien on Beltane, 165 Observances at Loch Tay on Hallowe'en, 178 at Yule, 156 Odd Numbers Lucky, 109 Old Religions mixing with Christianity, 179 Omens connected with Bees, 115 with Magpies, 115 Onion, a Disinfectant, 127 Origin of Hallowe'en, 177 of All Souls, 177 Overturning Chair on Leaving Table, 138
Pales, Goddess of Flocks, 166 Palilia, Ancient Festival, 166 Pennant's Account of Beltane in the Highlands, 169 People Selling themselves to the Devil, 27 Person first met in the Morning, 136 Peruvian Ancient Sun Worship, 146 Phoenicians in Britain 1000 B.C., 148 Photographs not Lucky, 142 Place at Dinner, 138 Plants Gathered on St. John's Eve, 174 Plough first seen in Season, 136 Portends for Good or Evil, 136 Prayers Unanswered, Cause not Sought, 14 said Backwards, 134 Prayers to the Gods, 13 Precious Stones: their Virtue, 102 Preparations made for Yule, 156 Priests, their Office and Power, 9 Professor Veitch on Beltane, 162 Providence--General and Special, 18 Purgatory, Proof for, 172
Recovering Stolen Babies, 40 Red Colour a Charm, 80 Relics in Curing Diseases, 102 Repeal of Law against Witchcraft, 68 Ringing Bells at Funerals, 66 Robin Redbreast, 111 Rocking an Empty Cradle, 137 Rood Day Changed to Beltane, 162 Roman Festivals in Spring, 166 Marriage Customs, 45 Rose, an Emblem of Silence, 129 Running the Broose, 49 Rowan Tree Protection against Witchcraft, 79
Sacred Fire Practice this Century, 83 Salamander, The, 118 Salt: its Influence, 33 to Spill: its Significance, 139 Scissors Presented as a Gift, 138 Scoreing aboon the Breath, 38 Second Sight, 71 Session: Acts against keeping Yule, 155 Seventh Son a Doctor, 90 Sheep Prevented Casting their Lambs, 84 Sham-in, Ancient Feast of Druids, 175 Shepherds keeping Beltane in Perthshire, 169 Sin Eaters, 60 Speaking Aloud to One's Self, 138 Spell to make a Fire Kindle, 135 Spider, A Legend concerning, 115 Spittle Confirming Bargain, 100 Spittle, Customs connected with, 100 Social Habits of Elfland, 26 Sorcerers, 108 Souls of the Departed, 11 Sooth Sayers, 10 Sow to Meet in the Morning, 120 St. Augustus, 152 St. John's Day Festival, 174 St. John's Wort: a Talisman, 128 Stealing Children and Youths by Fairies, 21 Star Gazers, 10 Stonehenge, 171 Strangers on the Grate, 140 Stye, Cause of, 96 Stye, Cure for, 97 Suicides, Superstition relating to, 85 Sun Worship in Ancient Times, 146 Sun, Primary God of the Ancient, 9 Survival of Sun Worship, 145 Superstitious Rites with a Corpse, 60 Superstition, Meaning of, 2 Swallows, Omens connected with, 112 Sympathetic Cures, 91
Thank-offering for Answer to Prayer, 13 Theory of Curing by Charms, 91 Touching for Disease, 91 Touching of a Corpse to Prevent Dreaming of it, 63 Twin Nuts in One Shell, 136
Visions, Seeing, 72 Visit to Stonehenge on Midsummer, 171
Warts, Cure for, 97 Weighing Children Unlucky, 137 Willow, The, 125 White Butterfly, 115 Wishes Fulfilled, 87 Wishes against Self: an Oath Fulfilled, 88 Withershins, 133 Witches, A, Account of Fairyland, 22 Witches Changing their Shape, 70 Wizards, 10 Wodrow's Opinion on Murdered Corpse Bleeding, 85 Woman Carried away by Fairies in Arran, 29 Wraiths, 58 Written Charms, 91
Yellow Hammer, The, 112 Yule: its Meaning, 149 Yule converted into Christmas, 154 Yule Observances Transferred to New Year's Day, 157