iii. To have guns available for any force detached to a

distance, such as a general reserve employed on a wide turning movement.

The methods by which these objects may be attained are:--

(_a_) By bringing batteries into action in concealed positions, where they can remain in observation, their fire power being in hand till they are actually ordered to open fire. A battery need not employ the fire of the whole of its guns; some may be kept temporarily in hand.

(_b_) By keeping batteries in positions of readiness in which they retain their mobility and can be moved to other parts of the field.

(_c_) By keeping batteries actually in reserve, if their withdrawal from action or from positions in readiness would cause delay and compromise the success of any contemplated operation.

It follows as a consequence of the above that the power of the Q.F. gun must be utilized on occasion to its full extent to compensate for the small number of guns employed on a given task.

=148.= _Protection._

1. On the march, artillery, owing to its inability to defend itself, requires protection which is provided by the other arms under the orders of the commander of the force to which the artillery belongs.

2. On the field of battle artillery will generally be protected by the distribution of the other arms. When, however, guns are in an exposed position, an escort should be detailed, and, if this has not been done, it is the duty of the artillery commander concerned to apply to the commander of the nearest troops, who will provide an escort.--(_See_ F.S. Regs., Part I., Sec. =105=). In moving from one part of a battlefield to another artillery commanders must consider, if no escort has been provided, whether one is necessary or whether to avoid delay they should rely on their own patrols.

3. When an escort is provided its commander is responsible for the protection of the artillery. This fact, however, does not absolve the artillery commander from all care for the safety of his guns. He should consult with the escort commander when necessary and should be ready to assist him with any available artillery patrols, when their employment would conduce to greater security.

4. Once in action artillery should be able to protect its own front, provided there is no ground within effective rifle range upon which the fire of the guns cannot rapidly be brought to bear in case of need.

5. Rifles are carried on artillery wagons, except in horse artillery. In action these rifles should, if considered necessary, be distributed to the gunners with the wagon lines, who should assist the escort, if one has been provided, in protecting these vehicles. This precaution is especially desirable in the case of artillery in action on the exposed flank of a force, where hostile cavalry may be operating.

=149.= _Intercommunication._

1. Intelligent co-operation depends largely on the receipt of timely information, and this in turn is dependent on the efficiency of the system of intercommunication.

2. In open country where the features are bold and the field of fire and view extensive, infantry can often be supported more effectively from a flank than by batteries situated in its immediate zone; and the possibility of bringing effective converging fire to bear on a given locality may be capable of realization. For this to be done the divisional artillery commander must have the means of readjusting from time to time the tasks that have been assigned to the artillery brigades in the original dispositions for battle.

In close or intricate country, on the other hand, where the view is restricted, artillery will rarely be able to do more than support the infantry in its own immediate front. In these circumstances the artillery and infantry may be formed temporarily into groups and the units thus associated must co-operate closely with one another. The limitations of central artillery control must then be met by an increased devolution of responsibility to subordinate artillery commanders. (_See_ Sec. =153=, (7).)

Artillery communications therefore involve two distinct ideas, viz., i. communication between the divisional artillery commander and his subordinates; ii. between infantry and artillery subordinate commanders. Both must be kept in view and organized as far as possible, but the relative importance of each varies to a great extent with the nature of the country.

3. The means of communication available are:--

i. Staff or orderly officers. ii. Mounted orderlies. iii. Artillery brigade telephones. iv. Visual signalling. v. Divisional signal service.

For the purposes of communication between the divisional artillery commander and his subordinates orderlies are probably the most reliable, but the number of officers and men available for the purpose is limited, and moreover their employment involves the expenditure of considerable time and horseflesh.

The telephone equipment with which each artillery brigade is provided is primarily intended to link up the brigade commander with his batteries. But it may also be possible to utilize this equipment for communication with the divisional artillery commander. When it is desired to maintain direct communication with the divisional artillery commander, and the nature of the country makes it possible, the telephone should be employed. It is impossible, however, to trust entirely to this means, and arrangements must be made to supplement it by others that will be available in the event of breakdown.

Visual signalling is apt to disclose positions to the enemy and, except when the use of the heliograph is possible, is slow and uncertain. In any case the number of signallers available make it impossible to trust exclusively to this method of communication. In open country, and for lateral communications, where it is possible to conceal the use of flags, etc., from the enemy’s view visual signalling is valuable as a means of supplementing other methods.

The divisional signal service affords a useful alternative. When it is desired to use this means of communication it will be advantageous if the subordinate artillery commander can station himself near the infantry brigadier with whom he is co-operating, as it is then possible for him to communicate with the divisional artillery commander by using the cable that connects divisional and infantry brigade headquarters. This line, however, cannot be relied on for urgent messages, as it is often very congested.

4. For the purpose of establishing an understanding between infantry and artillery subordinate commanders the most satisfactory results in a combined operation are obtained by a personal exchange of views between the commanders concerned before the operation begins. (_See_ sec. =153=. (7).)

If this is impossible or if the artillery commander is unable to remain in the vicinity of the infantry commander he should be represented by an officer.

5. It is of the utmost importance that communication should be maintained between the artillery and infantry commanders throughout the operation. It is unsafe to rely on one means of communication only, and two, or even more, should usually be arranged for. The mutual adoption of some system of describing the features of the ground, such as squared maps or panorama sketches, will often save delay and misunderstanding.

CO-OPERATION OF AIRCRAFT WITH ARTILLERY.

=150.= _Employment of aircraft._

1. Both during the period of tactical reconnaissance which precedes the battle, and in the battle itself, the employment of aircraft may assist the artillery.

2. If it is possible before a battle to ascertain the general position and number of the hostile batteries by reconnaissances from aircraft, a valuable clue to the probable grouping of the hostile artillery may be obtained and the allotment of tasks to his artillery by the divisional commander facilitated.

3. During the battle aircraft can assist artillery as follows:--

i. By the indication of concealed targets. ii. By observation of fire.

Aeroplanes may be used for both these objects, but kites are of value chiefly for observation of fire. The latter, however, can only operate in a wind of from 20 to 40 miles an hour. They can lift an observer to a height of 1,500 to 2,000 feet and can keep in telephonic communication with the ground. They cannot easily be damaged by fire.

=151.= _Signalling from aircraft._

1. The means of communication from aircraft are:--

i. Wireless telegraphy. ii. Visual signals. iii. Sound signals. iv. Dropping written messages.

Wireless telegraphy, in its present state of development, can be used only in a limited number of aircraft and will not generally be provided in aeroplanes allotted for work with artillery.

Visual signals can be made by means of Very’s signal lights, coloured flags or weighted streamers. Electric lamps may also prove of value. Very’s lights are used in three colours; white, red and green. The distance at which they can be seen and distinguished varies with atmospheric conditions, but on a clear day they are easily distinguishable at 3,000 feet overhead, and if the sun is not very bright and in the eyes of the observer at a distance of 2 miles with the naked eye. On a clear evening they can be seen and distinguished as far as 6 miles. Specially prepared lights can be seen at greater distances. Red, yellow, or blue flags, 18 inches square, held out by an observer can be seen with field glasses at a distance of 1 mile with the aeroplane at a height of 2,000 feet. Dark and light streamers can be distinguished with the naked eye at a distance of 1 mile.

A Klaxon horn in an aeroplane can be heard on the ground from a height of 2,000 feet and a distance of 1 mile.

Messages may be written on special weighted message blocks and thrown over, or written on an ordinary form and placed in a weighted bag with streamers, or in a parachute.

=152.= _Signalling from the ground to aircraft._

Any place where it is desired to have messages dropped will be marked by a cross on the ground, made of two strips of white cloth about 15 feet by 3 feet.

White strips on the ground, 6 feet by 1 foot, can be seen from a height of 3,000 feet, and a prearranged code of signals can be made by this means. (_See_ Sec. =205=.)

On a clear evening Very’s lights fired from the ground can be seen from aircraft at a height of 2,000 feet and a distance of 6 miles, and the different colours distinguished.

DUTIES OF THE DIVISIONAL ARTILLERY COMMANDER.

=153.= _General instructions._

1. The divisional commander is at all times responsible for the tactical employment of the artillery under his command. The divisional artillery commander is responsible for the execution of his orders so far as they affect the artillery.

2. When a force is marching towards the enemy and an encounter is anticipated, the divisional artillery commander will detail officers’ patrols (_See_ Sec. =240=) to accompany the advanced troops. These patrols will be found by the artillery brigades of the division, their number depending on the nature of the country and the front occupied by the division when on the march. As soon as an action appears likely these officers’ patrols will rapidly reconnoitre the ground on which it is probable that the force will deploy, and send information as soon as possible to the divisional artillery commander as to the nature and extent of the available artillery positions. A brief report received at the right time will be of greater value than a more elaborate and detailed report which is received too late to be acted upon.

3. The divisional artillery commander will usually accompany the divisional commander on the march. He must be careful to let all concerned, particularly his patrols, know where reports can reach him, both on the march and in action.

4. Should time be of importance and a rapid deployment essential there may be no opportunity for a detailed reconnaissance by either the divisional or the artillery commander. If time permits, however, it is advisable for the divisional artillery commander to make a personal reconnaissance and report the result to the divisional commander before the manner of the deployment is settled, stating how best in his opinion the artillery can be utilized to further the object in view.

5. In forming a plan of action the manner in which the artillery and infantry will co-operate should be clearly defined, and will depend, as a rule, on the character of the country. If the country is such that the task assigned to the division can be carried out by the troops of the division acting in combination under the immediate control of the divisional commander, it will, generally, be inadvisable to delegate the command of portions of the divisional artillery to subordinate commanders.

Batteries may be able by crossing their fire to afford effective support to infantry other than that operating in their immediate front. To tie them down to limited tasks might reduce the fighting capacity of the division as a whole. In such circumstances, the bulk of the artillery will deploy and occupy positions under the orders of the divisional artillery commander, who will allot tasks to each brigade commander or zones in which he thinks their fire can be employed most effectively.

6. The country may, however, be such as to necessitate the employment of the division on more than one tactical operation, in such a manner that their efforts cannot be directly combined. In such cases it will be advisable that the artillery and infantry should be formed temporarily into groups. =The units of the two arms thus associated for a distinct tactical operation should be under one commander.= It is the function of the divisional commander to organize these temporary groups. It is then the function of the divisional artillery commander to convey the necessary orders to the subordinate artillery commanders, placing them at the disposal of the group commanders.

It is the duty of a group commander to report to divisional headquarters when his special task is accomplished. When the special task has been accomplished, unless a new combined task is then to be allotted, the artillery of that group should be again placed at the disposal of the divisional artillery commander without delay, with a view to the issue of fresh instructions by him for its further employment. The artillery commander of the group is responsible for keeping the divisional artillery commander informed as to the course of the operation in which he is engaged, the general disposition of his batteries and the expenditure of ammunition.

7. =Whenever a subordinate artillery commander is allotted a task necessitating co-operation with a certain force of infantry, whether he is placed under the orders of the commander of that force or not, it becomes his duty to open communication with its commander, reporting to him in person, if possible, in order to obtain full information as to the character of the operation that he is to support and as to the proposed method of its execution.= (_See_ Secs. =149= (4) and =248= (2).)

8. The manner in which the divisional commander’s plan is translated into orders and in which these orders are conveyed to the artillery must depend to a great extent on the nature of the operation. Divisional operation orders lay down what is required of the artillery and contain such information about it as it is necessary for the other arms to know. If infantry and artillery are grouped together temporarily as indicated above, divisional operation orders will give particulars of the grouping, and will also state the task or mission that is assigned to each group. Consequently in cases where divisional operation orders are issued to commanders of artillery brigades the divisional artillery commander will usually only require to supplement them with a few technical instructions.

In his capacity as a subordinate commander (_see_ F.S. Regs., Part II. Sec. 10), however, the divisional artillery commander is responsible that the necessary orders are issued to his own units. When, therefore, divisional orders are not issued to artillery brigades, or when they do not give sufficient information respecting the artillery, it is his duty to issue his own orders, and he is responsible that they convey to the units under his command all the information respecting the intention of the divisional commander and the movements of the other arms which it is desirable for them to know. It will frequently be necessary to give these orders verbally, and for this purpose the divisional artillery commander may find it convenient to assemble his brigade commanders.

It is his duty to make sure that the necessary orders are issued to the divisional ammunition column commander and that the latter is acquainted with the dispositions of the various artillery units.

9. The divisional artillery commander must bear in mind that during the course of an action unexpected developments are always liable to occur and that the artillery must be prepared to deal with them promptly.

Concealed positions have greatly facilitated this task. Batteries that are in action, but have not been located by the enemy, can often be moved rapidly to other parts of the field. The tasks allotted to some of these batteries may have become of minor importance and they will be available if required. Other batteries may have accomplished the tasks assigned to them and thus be at the disposal of the divisional artillery commander. Notwithstanding these possibilities, however, it may often be advisable to keep some guns in hand ready to reinforce guns already in action or to open fire in a new direction.

10. As the action progresses it may be necessary to rearrange the tasks or zones allotted to artillery brigades to meet the changing circumstances, or to order changes of position. The position of the divisional artillery commander during an action should, therefore, be chosen with a view to the facilities it affords for keeping in touch with the divisional commander as well as for observing the progress of events and for communicating with his subordinate artillery commanders. (_See_ Sec. =149= (2).) If the divisional artillery commander cannot find a suitable position in the vicinity of divisional headquarters, he must take steps to keep himself in constant touch therewith, in order that he may learn at once all information reaching the headquarters which might be of use to him.

11. For the purposes of directing and controlling the fire of his batteries the information that is of primary importance to an artillery commander is firstly to know exactly where the infantry that he is supporting is from time to time; secondly, what is its immediate objective; and thirdly, what it is that prevents it from attaining its object.

The comparative effect of fire from different portions of the enemy’s position is, however, difficult to estimate from the artillery positions. The establishment of advanced observation posts may, therefore, be necessary to watch the situation generally, to obtain information from infantry commanders, and to report to the artillery commander concerned. Responsibility for establishing posts for this purpose will rest either with the divisional artillery commander or with the commander of the artillery in a temporary group. (_See_ para. 6.)[11]

[11] This does not preclude subordinate artillery commanders from making the arrangements for observation of fire referred to in Sec. =199=.

12. The task of the artillery is likely to be much facilitated in future by the use of aircraft, by means of which targets may be located and the observation of fire assisted.

The divisional artillery commander should therefore point out to the divisional commander whenever necessary the directions in which aircraft can be usefully employed in obtaining information which would be of value to the artillery.

ARTILLERY IN ATTACK.

=154.= _Action of the advanced guard artillery._

(_See also_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Sec. 68.)

1. The advanced guard affords protection to the main body and obtains information; either function may compel it to fight. When the enemy is encountered, and offensive action is intended, the advanced guard should drive back the enemy’s advanced troops till the dispositions of his main body are disclosed, after which the advanced guard will usually be compelled to limit its action to holding the ground gained until the commander has formed his plan and deployed his force.

=It follows that the action of the advanced guard may alternate between the offensive and the defensive. The action of the artillery must conform.=

2. The commander of the artillery of the advanced guard will accompany the advanced guard commander on the march, so that he may receive early instructions as to his action. The artillery will be allotted positions that will enable it to co-operate with the rest of the advanced guard in carrying out the plan of action that the advanced guard commander may decide to adopt.

The occupation of concealed positions, a wide dispersion of the available guns and a liberal expenditure of ammunition will then assist to deceive the enemy as to the strength of the force opposed to him, and may so contribute materially to the success of the operation.

3. If the enemy is in strength the advanced guard will eventually encounter opposition which it is unable to overcome. The artillery should then occupy the best positions available to assist the advanced guard in holding the ground gained and in repelling any attack that may be made upon it, in which case the principles involved are identical with those discussed later under the heading “Artillery in Defence.” (_See_ Sec. =158= _et seq._)

4. As it is impossible to foresee, when an advanced guard action is entered upon, where and when the main battle will be fought, considerations as to possible eventualities should not be allowed to influence the choice of the most suitable positions for the immediate purpose. Any breaking up of units that may result must be rectified later, if possible.

=155.= _Opening phase of the attack._

(_See also_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Sec. 105.)

1. If the divisional commander decides to attack, the first functions of the artillery will be to support the advanced guard against any possible offensive on the part of the enemy in order to cover the deployment of the infantry of the main body. Usually concealed positions will be the best for this purpose.

2. If the infantry deployment takes place successfully and the enemy is definitely thrown on the defensive the next stage will be the advance of the infantry through the zone swept by the hostile artillery fire. The enemy will probably use his artillery to delay this advance and to inflict loss on the infantry whenever opportunity offers. His guns are likely to be concealed. =The task of the artillery at this stage will usually be to locate the enemy’s batteries and, by subduing the fire of those in action, to support the infantry.=

To carry this out observation posts must be established and every effort made to locate the hostile batteries or their observation posts. Valuable help can be rendered by aerial reconnaissance, but artillery officers and look-out men should be trained to detect readily the flashes of guns, the dust thrown up by their discharge and the other indications of the presence of a battery in action or of an observing party. When a hostile battery that is impeding the advance of the infantry has been located, every effort should be made to subdue its fire. The range should be obtained as accurately as circumstances permit, and the battery should be subjected to an accurate, rapid, and intense fire[12] with the object of demoralizing the personnel and driving them temporarily from their guns or compelling them for the time being to cease fire. Should this object be achieved the hostile battery should be closely watched and any further attempt to intervene should be dealt with by a repetition of the same process. (_See_ Sec. =223= (3).)

[12] Should the limits within which the hostile battery is located be wide the fire must be of a searching nature.

3. Unless the enemy’s artillery by exposing itself offers an opportunity for its destruction, commensurate with the expenditure of ammunition involved, fire should be confined to those hostile batteries that can be located, which are impeding the infantry advance. If the hostile batteries cannot be located ammunition should be husbanded and efforts directed towards further reconnaissance. =The primary object being to assist the infantry to close with the enemy, an artillery engagement should not be entered into at this stage for its own sake.=

=156.= _Second phase of the attack._

1. As soon as the infantry reach a point where the effect of the enemy’s rifle fire begins to be seriously felt a fresh stage of the operations is entered upon.

=The forward movement of the infantry is henceforward dependent largely on effective covering fire. To be effective this covering fire must be developed by guns, machine guns and rifles in combination. The artillery commanders must therefore have a thorough grasp of the tactical situation and appreciate fully the needs of the infantry.=

The two arms must communicate freely and the artillery must watch the progress of the infantry closely. The actual method by which this co-operation should be obtained will vary in accordance with the general nature of the operation. (_See_ Sec. =153= (5).)

2. The defence of a position usually takes the form of the occupation of certain localities with unoccupied intervening spaces. If the terrain is suitable to defence these localities will mutually support one another and will each be supported by artillery. It follows that the attack must resolve itself into the attack of these localities, and protracted struggles will take place for their possession. When the country is intricate and enclosed the attacks on localities tend to become isolated actions and the system of temporary groupings referred to in Sec. =153= will be resorted to. The mission assigned to each group will be the capture of a certain locality. When the country is open the attacks on the localities, like the defence, can and should be mutually supporting.

3. The fire which prevents the development of an attack on a defended locality may come from the locality itself, or from other localities which are able to give support, or from supporting artillery. Inasmuch as infantry has difficulty in bringing fire to bear on objectives other than those in its immediate front, it follows that the artillery fire of the attack must be distributed according to requirements on all objectives from which effective fire is being brought to bear on the attacking infantry, if it is to be effective in helping the infantry forward.

Judicious distribution rather than over-concentration of artillery fire is therefore indicated, and to arrange for this distribution, and to allot suitable tasks or zones to each unit, is the function of the divisional artillery commander. (_See_ Sec. =153= (5) and (6).)

The method of fire to be employed by each unit will depend on the nature of the actual target that it is engaging. A battery engaging hostile artillery which is seriously impeding the advance of the infantry by its fire should endeavour to overwhelm the hostile artillery as described in Sec. =223=. A battery engaging infantry should, by bursts of fire, endeavour temporarily to disturb the enemy’s aim and reduce the volume and effect of his fire so as to afford its own infantry an opportunity of gaining ground. These bursts of fire should become more frequent and intense as the infantry approaches the enemy’s position and the further advance becomes more difficult. (_See_ Sec. =224=.) Covered in this manner by the fire of the artillery the infantry approaches nearer and nearer to the enemy till it reaches a point from which it is possible to assault.

4. During the progress of the fight it will usually become necessary for the artillery to move forward to positions from which it will have a clearer view of the infantry fight and thus be able to afford to the infantry more effective support, especially against local counter-attacks. For this forward movement to be carried out with success and to attain its object certain conditions are necessary, namely:--