Part 8
Coming now to the order _Salicaceæ_, we have to deal with the Poplars, of which we have several species, all more or less common, and largely planted in cultivated ground. Our first example is the White Poplar (_Populus alba_), a large tree frequently seen in abundance in most woods. It has a smooth, grey bark, spreading branches, downy shoots and buds, and it throws off many suckers from its roots. The leaves are roundish, approaching a heart-shape, except those of the young shoots, which are divided more or less deeply into five lobes; and they are covered below by a white cottony down. The flowers are imperfect, and the male and female catkins, produced on different trees, are mature in March or April. The male catkins are three or four inches long, and each flower has from six to ten stamens, with red anthers. The female catkins are much shorter, and its flowers have divided stigmas, with long, narrow, yellow segments arranged like a cross. The ovaries ripen into capsules which split open in July, setting free seeds which are provided with cottony filaments; and the seeds often fall in such abundance as to almost completely cover the ground beneath the tree.
The Grey Poplar (_P. canescens_) grows in similar situations, and flowers at the same time. Its leaves are roundish, with a waved and toothed margin, and are covered beneath with a slight coating of grey down. Those of the youngest shoots are more or less lobed. In this species the two stigmas are purple, wedge-shaped, and divided into from two to four lobes.
A third species--the Aspen (_P. tremula_) receives its specific name from the tremulous movements of its leaves, which swing with a rotary movement when disturbed even by the slightest breeze. This characteristic is common, to a greater or lesser degree, to all the species of this genus, and is due to the peculiar nature of the leafstalks, which are long, and flattened in a plane at right angles to that of the blade of the leaf. The Aspen has a grey bark, spreading branches, and downy shoots. The leaves are nearly round, with a sharp point and a serrate margin. When young they are downy above and beneath, but become smooth later. The catkins are very dense, and the flowers of the female tree have two divided stigmas.
The Black Poplar (_P. nigra_) and the Lombardy Poplar (_P. fastigiata_), though very common, are not natives of this country. The former is a large, spreading tree, and the latter is readily distinguished by its tall, pyramidal form, with all its branches directed upward. Although these two trees are so very unlike in general appearance, yet they resemble one another so closely in the form of the leaves and the character of the flowers that they are sometimes regarded as two varieties of the same species. In both the leaves are very variable in form, being either triangular, rhombic, or nearly circular, with rounded teeth. Both have smooth shoots, and sticky buds; and their catkins are not so dense as in the other members of the genus. The leaves also are smooth on both surfaces except when young, at which stage they are slightly downy beneath. The male catkins are two or three inches long, of a deep red colour; and, since they appear before the leaves, are very conspicuous. The female catkins are much shorter and erect, and the ripe capsular fruits burst in June, setting free seeds which are covered with a cottony down. _P. nigra_ has a furrowed grey bark, rendered still more irregular by prominent swellings, and it rarely produces suckers. _P. fastigiata_, on the other hand, often produces numerous suckers, and its trunk generally has a rough, furrowed, and twisted appearance. It is interesting to note that the female of the latter does not occur in our country. The tree was introduced by means of suckers, and it appears certain that suckers of the male tree only were brought over for this purpose.
We conclude this chapter by a brief description of the two native conifers of our woods--the Scotch Fir or Scots Pine (_Pinus sylvestris_) and the Yew (_Taxus baccata_). The former is very well known, for while its real home is the elevated parts of the North, it has been planted more or less in most southern districts; and it is readily distinguished from other forest trees by its general form, as well as by the nature of its leaves, and by its 'cones.' It should be noted, however, that several similar species, which may be confused with the Scots Pine, have been introduced into our country, but descriptions of these can hardly be included here.
The bark of the Scots Pine is rough, of a reddish-brown colour, and peels off in thick scales. Its trunk reaches a diameter of three or four feet, and it often grows to a height of over one hundred feet. The leaves are long, slender, rigid, grooved above, and always arranged in pairs. When young they are of a bright green colour, but turn to a dark green later, and remain on the tree for two years or more. The male and female flowers grow on the same tree, and are mature in May or June. The male catkins are only about a quarter of an inch in diameter, but are collected into conspicuous spikes, and shed an abundance of pale yellow pollen. The female catkins are in the form of egg-shaped cones, tapering to a point. The carpels of the flowers do not enclose the seeds, but are thick scales beneath which the seeds lie. The cone is two or three inches in length, and takes about eighteen months to ripen, so that the cones of two successive years will generally be found on the tree at the same time. When ripe, the scales are woody and very hard, and as they separate, the winged, naked seeds are set free and dispersed by the wind. The tree has usually a very weather-beaten appearance, due to the fact that the lower branches die as the height increases, and are then more easily detached in stormy weather.
The Yew is a native of mountainous woods, but has been planted largely in other situations. It is an evergreen tree, with a dark brown, fibrous bark; and although it never grows to any great height--seldom exceeding fifty feet, it often has a girth of from twenty to thirty feet, and reaches an age of fifteen hundred or two thousand years. The leaves are very crowded, about one inch in length, and arranged in two rows along the stem. They are linear, pointed, of a dark glossy green above, and lighter below. The flowers are small, sessile, situated in the axils of the leaves, and appear in March or April. The male flower consists of from five to eight anthers, below which is a whorl of overlapping scales. The female is much smaller, and is composed of a fleshy disc with a small ovule at the top and scales below. After fertilisation the ovule enlarges into a green seed, and the disc, which almost completely surrounds it, develops into a roundish, sweet, fleshy cup, about half an inch in diameter, of a bright rose-red colour and of a beautiful waxy appearance. The leaves of the Yew are poisonous, but the fruits are quite harmless. A variety of this tree occurs of a pyramidal form, with scattered leaves and an oblong fruit. It should be noted that while the male and female flowers of the Yew generally grow on separate trees, the both are occasionally found on the same tree.
VII
WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SPRING
In the present chapter we shall consider a number of wild flowers that are to be found by the waysides, including banks and hedgerows, and in waste places, during the spring months.
Our first example is the Celandine (_Chelidonium majus_), of the Poppy family (order _Papaveraceæ_), generally spoken of as the _Greater_ Celandine in order to distinguish it from the Lesser Celandine (p. 108), which belongs to the _Ranunculaceæ_. This plant is moderately common in shady hedgerows and waste places, grows to a height of from one to two feet, and flowers from May to July or August. It has a yellow, pungent, poisonous sap. The leaves are pinnate, with an odd leaflet at the tip, of a glaucous green colour; and all the leaflets are bluntly lobed. The flowers are yellow, from three-quarters to an inch in diameter, and are arranged in long-stalked umbels. As in the poppies, there are two sepals which fall early, and four petals which are crumpled in the bud. There are numerous stamens, attached below the superior ovary; and the latter ripens into a pod-like capsule of one chamber, about an inch and a half in length, which splits, when ripe, into two valves.
The Order _Cruciferæ_ is well represented by the wayside and on waste ground during the spring months, and the reader will do well to note the general characters of the flowers of this order (p. 17), unless already acquainted with them, before attempting to identify the species here described. Our first example--the Shepherd's Purse (_Capsella Bursa-pastoris_) is a well-known weed, often troublesome in our gardens, and may be seen in bloom from February to October. It is an erect herb, from six to eighteen inches high, which may be identified at once by reference to our illustration. The small white flowers are in lengthening racemes, and are often made less conspicuous by the conversion of the four petals into stamens. This weed is easily distinguished from all the other plants of the order by the form of the fruit, which is triangular and inversely heart-shaped. When ripe, it splits into two boat-shaped, keeled valves, which separate from a central membrane to which the seeds are attached.
The Common Scurvy Grass (_Cochlearia officinalis_) is to be found chiefly on the sea shore, but it often extends for miles inland, especially along the banks of the estuaries of rivers. It is a smooth, succulent plant, from four to eight inches high. The little white flowers have spreading petals, and are arranged in a short raceme; and the fruit is globular or oval, nearly a quarter of an inch long, pointed at the top, with several seeds in each cell. This plant commences to flower in May, and continues in bloom until August.
The Common Whitlow Grass (_Draba verna_) is a very small and inconspicuous plant, abundant on banks and hedgerows, bearing minute, white flowers in April and May. It has a cluster of narrow, toothed, hairy, radical leaves, from a quarter to half an inch long, that spread horizontally close to the ground; and a leafless stem, from one to four inches long, bearing a raceme of flowers on slender pedicels. The petals of the flowers are deeply notched; and the fruits are oblong, about a quarter of an inch long and half that width, containing many seeds.
Two species of Winter Cress (genus _Barbarea_) are common in waste land--the Common Winter Cress or Yellow Rocket (_B. vulgaris_), and the Early Winter Cress or American Cress (_B. præcox_). The former is an erect plant, from one to two feet high, with numerous, small, yellow flowers in a loose raceme, blooming from May to August. The radical leaves are pinnately divided, with a large, rounded, terminal lobe, and side lobes becoming smaller towards the base; and the upper leaves are oval and irregularly toothed. All the leaves are smooth and glossy, and of a deep green colour. The fruits are short, and thicker than the pedicels. A double variety of this flower is commonly cultivated in flower gardens.
The Early Winter Cress is a very similar plant, flowering at the same time, but is of a more slender habit, and has narrower leaves, the upper of which are pinnately divided. The flowers are also larger, and arranged in a closer raceme; and the fruit is longer, but not thicker than the pedicel. This species is cultivated as a salad, and frequently occurs as a garden escape.
Two species of _Sisymbrium_ are also very common--the Garlic Mustard (_S. alliaria_), also known as Sauce Alone and Jack-by-the-Hedge; and the Thale Cress or Wall Cress (_S. Thaliana_). The first named is one of the commonest of our hedgerow flowers. It grows to a height of one or two feet, and bears, from April to June, a corymbose cluster of pure white flowers, each about a quarter of an inch in diameter. The stem and leaves, when crushed, emit a distinct odour of garlic. The former is slightly branched; and the leaves are large, stalked, broadly cordate, with many prominent veins, coarsely toothed, and of a delicate green colour. The fruits are erect, about two inches long, on short pedicels.
The Thale Cress grows on dry banks and walls, and displays its minute white flowers from April to the end of the summer. The stem is erect, slender and branched, from six to ten inches in height; and the leaves, which are nearly all radical, are simple, oblong-lanceolate, toothed and downy. The fruits of this species are erect, narrow, with four obscure angles, and about twice as long as their stalks.
The Rape or Cole-seed (_Brassica napus_) is a cruciferous weed commonly occurring in cultivated ground, and often cultivated for its seeds. It grows from one to two feet high, and bears corymbose clusters of yellow flowers during May and June. Its root is fusiform (spindle-shaped), and all its leaves are smooth and of a sea-green colour. The lower leaves are lyrately pinnate, with toothed edges; and the stem leaves are ovate-lanceolate, acute, embracing the stem. The pods spread as they ripen.
The Wild Turnip (_Brassica Rapa_) is a very similar plant, producing its yellow flowers from April to July. Its root is tuberous and fleshy. The lower leaves are hairy and rough, and not of the glaucous green characterising the last species, while the upper leaves are glaucous and smooth.
The Sweet Violet (_Viola odorata_)--the favourite flower of wayside banks--is common in many parts, and is generally very easily distinguished from other similar species of the order (_Violaceæ_) by its pleasing fragrance. It has a short root-stock, and, usually, long creeping runners. At the top of the stock is a cluster of long-stalked leaves, broadly heart-shaped in form, blunt, with crenate margins and a slightly downy surface. At the base of the leafstalks are very narrow, entire stipules; and from among these arise the slender flower-stalks, of about the same length as those bearing the leaves, with a pair of small bracts a little above the middle. The flowers are solitary, drooping, of a violet, lilac, or white colour, with obtuse sepals; a short, blunt, straight spur to the lower petal; and a hooked, pointed stigma. The conspicuous, scented flowers with which we are so well acquainted, bloom from March to April; but all through the summer the plant bears small petalless flowers that produce the seeds.
Of the order _Caryophyllaceæ_ our first example is the Ciliated Pearlwort (_Sagina ciliata_), a small, creeping plant, flowering in May and June in dry places. The leaves are very small, narrow, ciliated, terminating abruptly in a sharp point; and the two of each pair are united at their bases. The flowers are very small and stalked; and the petals are either very minute or absent. The sepals, stamens, styles, and valves of the capsule, are each four; and the sepals lie close against the capsule.
The Procumbent Pearlwort (_S. procumbens_), also found in dry places, is a similar little plant, smooth and prostrate, with very small white flowers that appear in May and bloom till the end of the summer. The peduncles of this species curve backward just after flowering, but become erect afterwards; and the sepals, which are sometimes five in number, are not close against the fruit, as in the last, but spreading.
The genus _Stellaria_ includes some plants with pretty, white, star-like flowers, some of which adorn our hedgerows in early spring. The most conspicuous of these is the Greater Stitchwort or Satin Flower (_S. Holostea_), the flowers of which are three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and are arranged in loose, leafy cymes. The sepals have no veins, and are about half as long as the petals, which are so deeply cleft that the flower, at first sight, appears to possess ten instead of five.
The Lesser Stitchwort (_S. graminea_) is a very similar flower, common in dry places, blooming from May to August. The plant is smooth, and does not possess the glaucous hue of the last species. The stem is very straggling and slender, from one to three feet long; and the leaves are grass-like, sessile, and acute. The flowers are very similar to those of the Greater Stitchwort, but are smaller. The sepals have each three veins, and are as long as the petals.
The Little Chickweed (_S. media_), so troublesome in our gardens, belongs to the same genus. Its decumbent, branching stem has a longitudinal line of hairs placed alternately on opposite sides from joint to joint; and its ovate, smooth, succulent leaves are shortly pointed, the lower ones having hairy stalks. The little star-like, white flowers grow from the axils of the leaves, and have each five hairy sepals, as long as the deeply-cleft petals, with narrow, membranous margins.
These three species of _Stellaria_, and, in fact, all the species of the genus, are distinguished by their divided petals and the presence of three styles; but there is another group of flowers in the same order known as the Mouse-ear Chickweeds (_Cerastium_), also with divided petals, but having either four or five styles.
Three of the species of this group may be included among the spring flowers of waysides. One of these is the Broad-leaved or Clustered Mouse-ear Chickweed (_Cerastium glomeratum_), which flowers from April to the end of the summer. It has an erect, sticky, hairy stem; and pale green ovate leaves. The little white flowers are tufted, on short stalks, with sepals and petals of equal length. A second--the Narrow-leaved Mouse-ear Chickweed (_C. triviale_)--has a similar but spreading stem; and the leaves are narrow, and of a deep green colour. In this one, too, the sepals and petals are equal; but the former are hairy, and the flower-stalks are longer. The other is the Field Mouse-ear Chickweed (_C. arvense_), which has numerous white flowers, in forked cymes, blooming from April to August. Its stem is hairy, prostrate, from six to ten inches long; the leaves very narrow; and the sepals only about half as long as the petals.
The pretty Wild Geraniums, of which there are several species, often form a very attractive feature of the wayside. They are readily recognised as a group by the swollen joints of their stems; the simple, stipuled, lobed leaves; the axillary flowers; and the fruit composed of five distinct carpels, with their five long styles adhering to a long central beak. The flowers have five distinct petals and sepals, and ten stamens, five of which become alternately larger. When the fruit is ripe the five carpels separate, and are raised by the curving of the smooth styles which remain for a time attached to the beak.
In early April, and from then to August or September, the Dove's-foot Crane's-bill (_Geranium molle_) may be seen in flower by the wayside. The plant is prostrate, soft and downy, with rounded leaves lobed and cut. The pretty pink or lilac flowers are from a third to half an inch in diameter, with abruptly-pointed sepals and notched petals. This species may be readily distinguished from similar plants of the same genus by the smooth, wrinkled capsules, and smooth seeds.
A second species--the Jagged-leaved Crane's-bill (_G. dissectum_)--is also very common in wastes and by waysides. It is a hairy, rather than a downy plant, with spreading stems from one to two feet long; and displays its bright red, shortly-stalked flowers from April to August. The flowers, which vary from a quarter to half an inch in diameter, have long-pointed sepals and notched petals.
A third species, also very common, is the Herb Robert (_G. Robertianum_), characterised by a strong odour, and red, hairy, spreading, succulent stems one or two feet long. The leaves are compound, with three or five deeply-divided leaflets, and turn to a bright crimson colour in late summer. The flowers are half an inch or more in diameter, with ovate entire petals, of a pink colour and beautifully veined. The sepals have long points, and are rendered very viscid by glandular hairs. A white-flowered variety of this geranium is occasionally seen.
We have now to note four of the spring leguminous plants (order _Leguminosæ_)--plants belonging to the Pea family, distinguished by their butterfly-like flowers, and, usually, by compound, stipuled leaves. Our first example is the Black Medick or Non-such (_Medicago lupulina_) which is common in wastes, by the waysides and in pastures. This is a procumbent, spreading plant, with stems from six inches to two feet in length, and leaflets inversely egg-shaped, with finely-toothed edges. The flowers, which appear in April, and continue to bloom till near the end of the summer, are small, yellow, and arranged in dense oblong spikes. The calyx has five teeth, and the pods are kidney-shaped, each with only one seed.
In shady grassy or bushy places we may see the Crimson Vetch or Grass Vetchling (_Lathyrus Nissolia_) which, although not common, is rather frequent in the midland and southern counties of England. It is a very slender plant, from one to two feet high, bearing crimson flowers in May and June, and may be identified at once by reference to our illustration.
The pretty Bird's-foot (_Ornithopus perpusillus_) is commonly found on waste ground, more particularly on sandy soils. It has a spreading, prostrate stem, from six to eighteen inches long, and pinnate leaves with from about fifteen to twenty-five elliptical, downy leaflets. The flowers appear to be pink when viewed from a distance; but, when examined closely, are seen to have cream coloured petals that are veined with crimson. They are arranged in heads, of a few flowers each, on long stalks, with a leaf immediately below each head. The pods are curved, and made up of from seven to nine oval, one-seeded joints, with a terminal beak resembling the claw of a bird, so that each cluster of pods has much the appearance of a bird's foot. This plant flowers from April to July.
Our other example of leguminous flowers is the Bush Vetch (_Vicia sepium_)--a climbing plant with stem two or three feet long, very common in hedges, flowering from April to August. The leaves are pinnate, with from twelve to eighteen oval, blunt leaflets which increase in size towards the base. The flowers are pale purple, and are arranged in axillary racemes of from four to six, on very short peduncles. The style is tufted on one side, and the pods are smooth and erect.
We have now to note a flower of the Rose order (_Rosaceæ_), but since it is common for a beginner to be confused by the general resemblance of some of the flowers of this group to some of the _Ranunculaceæ_, it may be well to point out that in the latter the stamens are united to the receptacle of the flower, below the carpels, while in the rose order the stamens are attached around or on the ovary itself.