Part 21
The most abundant species is undoubtedly the Common Red Poppy (_Papaver Rhæas_), which is to be found in almost every corn-field, as well as in other fields and waste places in cultivated districts, flowering from May to July. It is from one to two feet high, covered with rather stiff spreading hairs; and its leaves are pinnately divided into narrow, pointed lobes which are themselves more or less cut. The beautiful, rich scarlet flowers are about three inches in diameter, often with a black patch at the base of each petal, and are solitary on long peduncles that are covered with hairs. The fruit is almost globular, tapering towards the bottom; and on its disc are from eight to twelve radiating stigmas.
The Long-headed Poppy (_P. dubium_) is a very similar plant, but is generally rather more slender, with hairs that do not spread so much; and its leaves are often more deeply cut into narrower lobes. Its flowers are a little smaller, with two opposite petals larger than the other two; and the hairs of the peduncles lie close against the surface. The fruit is oblong, tapering towards the bottom, the length being nearly three times the greatest width. This poppy also flowers from May to July. It is represented in Fig. 1. of Plate VII.
A third species--the Long Prickly-headed Poppy (_P. Argemone_), also known as the Pale Poppy, is a small, weak plant, seldom exceeding nine inches in height, with leaves divided into a few narrow segments. The flowers are of a pale red colour, usually less than two inches in diameter; and, like those of the commonest species, have usually a dark patch at the base of each petal. The fruit is narrow-oblong, tapering below, in fact, almost club-shaped, and is clothed with a few stiff, bristly hairs. The time of flowering is the same as that of the preceding species.
In the corn-fields of several parts of England we may meet with the White or Opium Poppy (_P. somniferum_) which is largely grown in warmer countries for the opium it produces, and which was probably introduced into Britain from the Mediterranean region. It is generally about two feet in height, and quite smooth with the exception of a few spreading, stiff hairs on the flower stalks. The whole plant is of a glaucous green colour. The flowers are large, generally of a bluish white colour, often with a purple patch at the base of each petal; and the fruit is large, globular and smooth. This species flowers from June to August.
The pretty little Fumitory (_Fumaria officinalis_--order _Fumariaceæ_) is abundant in most of the cornfields and other cultivated places of most parts of Britain, flowering from June to September. It is a very variable plant, quite smooth, and of a delicate, pale green colour. Its stem varies from six inches to over two feet in length, sometimes erect, with spreading branches, but often climbing among the neighbouring vegetation, supported by the twisted leafstalks. The leaves are pinnately divided into stalked leaflets which are further cut into three-lobed segments; and the flowers are in racemes that are either terminal or opposite the leaves. At first the racemes are short, but they lengthen out considerably as upper flowers open and the lower ones fruit. Each flower has a short pedicel that arises from the axil of a whitish or coloured bract; and the two small sepals are either white or coloured like the bracts. The corolla is oblong, tubular, formed of four petals in two pairs, with a short, blunt spur at the base; and its colour is very variable--usually cream-coloured or pink, and often tipped with crimson.
Some of the Mustards are very common weeds in corn-fields. They belong to the genus _Brassica_, of the order _Cruciferæ_, and are distinguished by their long siliquas, almost cylindrical in form, terminating in a 'beak' which is formed entirely of the persistent style, or of this together with a modified portion of the fruit containing one or more seeds.
One of the commonest of these is the Wild Mustard or Charlock (_Brassica arvensis_ or _B. Sinapis_), a very abundant weed in most cultivated fields, probably introduced originally from South Europe. It is a very coarse plant, with scattered, bristly, spreading hairs, growing from one to two feet high, and bearing racemes of yellow flowers that generally exceed a diameter of half an inch. The leaves are ovate, with short, stiff hairs; all are pinnately lobed, and the lower ones have generally a large oval lobe, with coarsely-toothed segments, and a few narrower segments along the stalk. The fruits are spreading, many-angled pods, usually about an inch in length, constricted between the seeds when ripe, with a beak about a third the length of the whole pod enclosing a single seed at its base. The plant flowers from May to August.
The White Mustard (_Brassica alba_ or _Sinapis alba_) is not so common; but it is somewhat largely cultivated for its seedlings, which are used, with those of cress, as salad; and the plant is not unfrequently found as a weed in corn-fields and on other cultivated ground. The whole plant is clothed with rather stiff hairs that are directed downwards, and its height varies from one to two feet. Its leaves are pinnately divided into ovate, coarsely-toothed segments, the terminal one largest. The flowers are bright yellow, about half an inch in diameter, in racemes. The pods are usually near an inch long, on spreading stalks; with a stout, flattened beak, longer than the pod itself, containing a single seed. They are constricted between the seeds, and both valves and beak are clothed with stiff, whitish hairs. The plant flowers during June and July.
A third member of the same genus--the Black Mustard (_Brassica nigra_ or _Sinapis nigra_)--is also cultivated for its seeds, which are used in the preparation of table mustard, and it is also a moderately common weed of cultivation in many parts. It is a hairy plant, from one to three feet high. Its lower leaves are rough, and deeply divided into a large terminal and small lateral lobes; and the upper ones are small, very narrow, smooth and undivided. The flowers are yellow, usually less than half an inch across, in long, narrow racemes; and the shortly-stalked pods are four-angled, smooth, and about half an inch long. They do not spread much, and the short beak consists only of the narrow style. This species flowers from June to August.
The Wild Radish or White Charlock (_Raphanus Raphanistrum_) is a common corn-field weed, somewhat resembling the mustards just described in general appearance, but its pods are distinctly constricted between the seeds, and often split when ripe into from three to seven one-seeded joints. The plant is bristly, and grows from one to two feet high, flowering from May to September. The petals are either white with purplish veins, or pale yellow, or lilac; and the pods, over an inch long, are tipped by the conical style, which is about twice as long as the last joint.
Coming now to the order _Caryophyllaceæ_ we have to note the pretty Corn Cockle (_Lychnis Githago_), which is commonly seen in the midst of the corn, often growing so tall that its pale purple flowers peep above the ears. Its stem is clothed with long, soft, white hairs; and the leaves are all long, narrow and entire. The flowers, which appear during July and August, are usually over an inch in diameter, and are solitary on long, leafless peduncles. This flower appears on Plate VII.
The same order includes the Corn Spurrey (_Spergula arvensis_), a low, procumbent plant, with small, white flowers that bloom from June to August. Its slender stem varies from six to eighteen inches long, and the narrow, whorled leaves from one to two inches. The flowers are only a quarter of an inch in diameter, with sepals usually a little shorter than the petals.
In the order _Linaceæ_ we have the Common Flax or Linseed (_Linum usitatissimum_), which is cultivated in some districts, and often appears as a weed in fields. It is an erect, smooth plant, with a slender stem about a foot high, and very narrow, entire, acute leaves, about an inch long. The flowers are in a loose, terminal corymb, and have five acute sepals; five bright blue petals over half an inch long, which fall early; five perfect and five imperfect stamens; and an ovary with five styles. It flowers during July. (See Plate VII.)
The Shepherd's Needle or Venus's Comb (_Scandix Pecten-Veneris_) of the order _Umbelliferæ_ derives its name from the long, flat, needle-like beaks of the fruits that are placed almost parallel like the teeth of a coarse comb. The plant is erect, branched, from three to twelve inches high; and the general character of its leaves and inflorescence may be gathered from our illustration. The flowers are small, white, with larger outer petals; and the carpels of the fruit are cylindrical, about a third of an inch long, with beaks about an inch and a half. The plant flowers from June to September.
Of the order _Rubiaceæ_ we shall include the common Field Madder (_Sherardia arvensis_), a little plant, varying from five to ten inches high, the minute lilac flowers of which may be seen from April to October. Its branched stems are often decumbent; and the little, narrow, sharply-pointed leaves, rough on the edges, are placed in whorls of from four to six. The umbels are very small, terminal, and surrounded by a leafy involucre that is divided into several lobes longer than the flowers. The corolla consists of an exceedingly slender tube, at the top of which are four spreading lobes; and the fruit is crowned by the five or six teeth of the calyx, which enlarges as the former ripens.
The Field Knautia or Field Scabious (_Knautia arvensis_ or _Scabiosa arvensis_), shown on Plate VII, is very common on cultivated ground, particularly in corn-growing districts. It is a slightly-branched plant, from one to four feet high, clothed with stiff, bristly hairs. Its lower leaves are stalked, simple, narrow, and usually but little cut; and the upper ones sessile, broader at the base, and either coarsely toothed or deeply cut. The flower-heads are large, lilac, on long peduncles. The outer florets are much larger than the inner, and all have four-lobed corollas. The fruit is angular, and is surmounted by the eight or ten bristles of the calyx. This plant flowers from June to August.
Two of the Sow Thistles (order _Compositæ_) have already been noticed among the flowers of waste places (p. 179), and a third, known as the Corn Sow-Thistle (_Sonchus arvensis_), falls within the range of the present chapter, being a very common corn-field weed. It is an erect plant, from one to four feet high, with a hollow, angular stem, branched only towards the top. Its lower leaves are large, stalked, more or less divided into triangular, sharply-toothed lobes that are curved downwards; and the upper ones are sessile, less divided, with broad lobes which clasp the stem. The flower-heads are bright yellow, large, and arranged in a loose, terminal corymb. Their stalks and bracts are rough with stiff brown or black hairs; and the pappus of the wrinkled fruits consists of a dense mass of white, silky hairs. The plant blooms during August and September.
The Bluebottle or Cornflower (_Centaurea Cyanus_) is a pretty cornfield Composite, not uncommon in many parts, blooming from June to August. The plant, represented on Plate IV, is covered with loose, cottony hairs, and grows from one to two feet high. The heads of flowers are about an inch in diameter, solitary on long, terminal stalks, surrounded by an oval involucre of closely-overlapping bracts with sharp points and toothed, membranous margins. The receptacle is flat, with silvery bristles between the florets. All the florets are tubular; the central ones of a bluish-purple colour, with purple anthers; and the outer ones much larger, curved, irregular, and bright blue. The fruit is surmounted by a pappus of short, simple hairs.
One of the most beautiful of the corn-field flowers is the Corn Marigold or Yellow Ox-eye Daisy (_Chrysanthemum segetum_), easily distinguished by its rather large flower-heads, solitary on terminal peduncles, with bright golden-yellow ray and disc. It grows from twelve to eighteen inches high, and flowers from May to July. It may be identified by the aid of the coloured illustration on Plate VII.
The Corn Chamomile (_Anthemis arvensis_), of the same order, is not unfrequently seen in corn fields, flowering from June to August. It is much like the Scentless Mayweed (p. 188) and the Common Chamomile (p. 268) in general appearance, but may be easily distinguished with a little care. It is a rather coarse plant, more or less clothed with a silky down; and its freely-branched stem is usually erect, and from one to two feet high. The leaves are pinnate, with leaflets divided into very narrow, almost hairlike segments; and the flower-heads are rather large, with white ray and yellow disc, solitary on the tops of leafy stalks. The involucre bracts are acute; the receptacle conical; and ray florets always possess a style.
The Stinking Chamomile or Stinking Mayweed (_Anthemis Cotula_) is another similar corn-field plant, but it may be readily recognised by the minute glands dotted over its surface, the acrid secretion of which emits a f[oe]tid odour when rubbed, and often blisters the hand. The plant is generally smooth, with an erect, branched stem, from nine to fifteen inches high; and pinnate leaves with leaflets divided into short, narrow, pointed lobes. The flowers are similar to those of the previous species, on the tops of long, leafy stalks; but the receptacle, at first convex, lengthens to a tall cone; and the white ray-florets have no style. The involucre bracts are also very narrow, bristly at the top; and the fruits are rendered rough by numerous little glandular projections. This plant flowers from June to September.
The Corn Bellflower or Wild Venus's Looking-glass (_Campanula hybrida_), of the order _Campanulaceæ_, is not uncommon in the cornfields of the chalky districts of South and East England. It is an erect plant, from six to ten inches high, bearing purple, blue, or (occasionally) white flowers from July to September. In addition to the general features shown in our illustration we may note that its long, inferior ovary is three-angled; and that the fruit splits, when ripe, by the formation of slits near the top.
In the order _Boraginaceæ_ we have the Small Bugloss (_Lycopsis arvensis_), a branched plant, from six inches to two feet in height, covered all over with stiff bristles that are swollen at the base. Its leaves are oblong or very narrow, wavy, and sometimes toothed; the upper ones sessile and often clasping the stem; and the lower frequently shortly stalked. The flowers are small, pale blue, in simple or branched, one-sided spikes. They have a deeply-cleft calyx of five segments; and the species may be distinguished from other, somewhat similar plants of the same order by the form of the tube of the corolla, which is always bent in the middle. This plant is very common in the corn fields of most parts; and flowers during June and July.
Our next flower is the pretty little Scarlet Pimpernel or Poor Man's Weather Glass (_Anagallis arvensis_) of the Primrose order (_Primulaceæ_), which is very common in cornfields and on other cultivated ground, flowering from May to very late in the autumn. The stem of this plant is procumbent and much branched, the branches sometimes reaching a length of considerably more than a foot; and its leaves are opposite, sessile, broadly ovate, undivided, and dotted beneath. The little flowers are solitary in the axils of the leaves, on long, slender peduncles that are always curved backwards as the fruits ripen. The calyx is deeply cleft into five pointed segments; and the bright scarlet (occasionally pink or white) corolla, fringed with minute hairs, spreads its five lobes only in sunny weather. The fruit is a little globular capsule, enclosed in the persistent calyx, splitting transversely into two hemispheres when ripe.
The Climbing Bistort (_Polygonum convolvulus_--order _Polygonaceæ_), also known as the Climbing Buckwheat, Climbing Persicaria, and Black Bindweed, is a very troublesome corn-field weed, with the climbing habit of the Convolvulus, often strangling the plants round which it twines its angular stem. It varies from one to four feet in height; and its alternate leaves are heart-shaped or arrow-shaped, pointed, with short membranous stipules at the base of the stalk. The flowers are small, pale green, in little loose clusters of from four to twelve. The lower clusters are stalked in the axils of the leaves, and the upper ones form irregular, terminal racemes. The five segments of the calyx are bluntly keeled, and occasionally winged; and the three outer ones closely envelop the fruit--a triangular nut. The plant flowers from July to September.
At least two or three of the Spurges (_Euphorbiaceæ_) are commonly seen in cultivated fields, but one in particular--the Dwarf Spurge (_Euphorbia exigua_)--is common in corn fields. It is a slender, smooth plant, usually from two to ten inches high, with several ascending stems diverging from near the base. The little yellow flowers are in terminal umbels of from three to five rays, sometimes very much contracted; and their glands (see p. 207) are crescent-shaped, with their fine points turned outwards. The time of flowering is July to October.
Our last example of the corn-field plants is the Wild Oat Grass or Havers (_Avena fatua_)--an erect grass, two or three feet high, with rough leaves, and stem hairy at the joints. Its flowers form a loose, spreading panicle, from six to nine inches long; with three-flowered spikelets, about an inch long, on very slender stalks, erect at first but afterwards drooping. The outer glumes are about three quarters of an inch long, tapering to a bristly point, often tinged with purple; and the inner ones, two or three in number, are a little shorter, cleft at the top into pointed lobes, and covered outside with yellowish-brown hairs. The awn is about twice as long as the spikelet, twisted at the base, and usually bent near the middle. This grass flowers during June and July.
XVIII
ON THE CHALK
While some flowers are so universally distributed that they may be described as existing almost everywhere, others are restricted to certain kinds of localities, outside which they seldom occur. This restriction is sometimes merely one of light and shade, the same species growing almost equally luxuriantly in open spaces, or, in shady places, regardless of other conditions. Some plants, however, are particularly partial to certain conditions of soil, situation, or climate, and are consequently more strictly confined to limited districts.
We have already referred to several species which are essentially flowers of the woods, but even these are not distributed evenly in wooded districts; for while some seem to be more universally scattered throughout our wooded parts, others show a decided partiality to particular soils, being found exclusively, or almost so, either in sandy woods, clayey woods, or woods in limestone districts, &c. In fact, the nature of the soil is such an important factor in determining plant distribution that we naturally associate many species with the particular rock strata on which we almost invariably find them.
So intimately is the distribution of plants connected with that of the geological strata that when, in the course of a day's ramble, we find a more or less sudden change in the nature of the flora, we may be almost sure that there is a corresponding change in the nature of the rocks or soil over which we have strayed; and the young botanist will find much to interest him in the study of this relation between vegetable life and geological structure. Of course we do not mean that the botanist must necessarily be also a geologist, but that he should, at least, be always ready to observe the nature of the habitats of the flowers he finds, noting particularly the kind of soil on which they grow.
Chalky districts are notably attractive to the lover of flowers; for, not only do they yield a number of species that are almost essentially the offspring of calcareous soils, but also produce other blossoms, often in rich profusion, that are less restricted in their habitats.
In the present chapter we shall note the principal flowers that grow principally or entirely in calcareous districts, the first being the Pasque Flower (_Anemone Pulsatilla_--order _Ranunculaceæ_), rare, it is true, but too beautiful to be omitted from our selection. This flower, shown on Plate VIII, Fig. 5, may be seen on some chalky hills during May and June. It is of a silky nature, and the lovely purple blossoms often reach a diameter of an inch and a half. The leaves are doubly or trebly pinnate, with very narrow segments which increase in length after the flowers have faded. The bracts, which are some distance below the flower, have also linear segments; and the flowers droop while still in the bud, but the peduncle becomes erect as they expand. The stamens are yellow, and the fruits are provided with feathered hairs.
On chalky, sandy, and other dry soils we may meet with the Round Prickly-headed Poppy (_Papaver hybridum_--order _Papaveraceæ_), very much like the Common Poppy in general appearance, but readily distinguished by its general hairy character, and, more especially, by the globular, furrowed fruit covered with spreading bristles. The flowers vary from one to two inches in diameter, and the crimson or deep scarlet petals are often black at the base.
The Bitter Candytuft (_Iberis amara_--order _Cruciferæ_), which is so well known as a border-flower of our gardens, grows freely in some of the chalk districts of the South and East of England. Unlike most of the Crucifers, the flowers are not symmetrical, the two outer petals being much larger than the others. The inflorescence is a raceme, which, like that of the Wallflower, becomes longer as the flowering proceeds; and the colour of the petals is white, lilac or red. The height of this plant varies from six to nine inches, and the flowers bloom during July and August.
The Wild Mignonette (_Reseda lutea_--order _Resedaceæ_) is very common in some chalky districts, generally in fields and other open ground, and may be easily recognised by its close resemblance to the well-known Sweet Mignonette (_R. odorata_), which is so highly valued as a garden flower on account of its pleasant perfume. It is of a shrubby nature, from one to two feet high, with scattered, stipuled leaves, the lower of which are pinnate, while the upper are three-lobed. The flowers are irregular, yellow, and arranged in short, conical racemes. The six sepals are unequal and linear; and the petals, also six in number, are very unequal, while the posterior one is divided into many parts. The flowers bloom throughout the summer.