Part 19
Their stems are solid, usually more or less triangular, not swollen at the nodes as in grasses; and the sheaths of the leaves which surround the stems are not split. The flowers are in little green or brown spikelets that are either solitary at the top of the stem, or collected into a cluster, spike, panicle, or umbel. Each spikelet is in the axil of a scaly or leafy outer bract, and consists of several scales or glumes, each with a single sessile flower in its axil. The flowers have no perianth, but there are often a few very small scales or bristles at their base. They have two or (generally) three stamens; a one-celled ovary; and a style that is more or less deeply cleft into two or three slender stigmas. The fruit is a small, one-seeded nut, usually flattened in the species which have two stigmas, and triangular where the stigmas are three.
The reader should make himself thoroughly acquainted with the above features of the sedges, in order to avoid any confusion with the rushes, on the one hand, and with the grasses on the other; and he must not be led astray by the fact that some of the sedge family are popularly known as rushes.
Of this order the pretty Cotton Grasses (_Eriophorum_) often form a very conspicuous feature of marshes and other wet places. They are tufted or creeping plants with terminal spikelets, very much like those of the other sedges, but their flowers are perfect, and the bristles which represent the perianth grow to a considerable length as the flowering advances, protruding far beyond the overlapping glumes, and at last forming dense tufts of fine cottony hairs.
Two species are decidedly common and widely distributed, more especially the Common Cotton Grass (_Eriophorum polystachyon_), which is often so abundant as to give a general whitish appearance to whole patches of boggy land. It is a creeping plant, with solid, rigid, solitary stems, from six inches to over a foot in height; a few shorter, radical leaves; and a few leaves on the stem. Its spikelets, three to twelve in number, form a terminal cluster, the inner ones sessile, or nearly so, and the outer stalked and more or less drooping. They are at first oval or oblong, about half an inch long; but in fruit, usually in the month of June, they form dense cottony tufts from one to two inches in length.
The other is the Hare's-tail or Sheathing Cotton Grass (_E. vaginatum_)--a tufted species, common on boggy moors, with many stems which are round below and triangular above, at first about six or eight inches high, but lengthening as the flowering advances. At the top of each stem is a solitary oval spikelet, of a dark brownish-green colour, over half an inch long, with many straight bristles that eventually form a dense, globular, cottony tuft about an inch in diameter. This is an earlier species, flowering during April and May.
The large genus _Carex_ contains many common sedges with grass-like leaves springing from the base or the lower part of the stem. Some of them have a solitary spikelet; others have several spikelets in a terminal cluster or spike, with, sometimes, stalked spikelets below; or they are arranged in a compound spike or panicle. The flowers are all imperfect, without perianth; and the male and female flowers are either in separate spikelets or in different parts of the same one. The glumes overlap all round the axis of the spikelet; there are generally three stamens; and the ovary is enclosed in a little vase-shaped covering with a little hole at the top through which the two or three stigmas protrude.
We give illustrations of two of the commonest species; the Common Sedge (_Carex vulgaris_), which flowers from June to August; and the Marsh Sedge (_C. paludosa_), that flowers in May and June. The former grows to a height varying from six inches to two feet; and the latter to from two to three feet.
XVI
ON HEATH, DOWN AND MOOR
On the exposed and more or less bleak heath, down and moor we do not meet with many species of spring flowers, and for this reason we have included both spring and summer blossoms in the same chapter.
It must not be supposed, however, from the above statement, that we regard these exposed situations as devoid of interest, or even lacking in flowers, for the small number of species flowering early in the season is often compensated for by the profusion in which their blossoms are produced.
The golden blaze of the Furze or Gorse, aided more or less by the similar flowers of its little relative--the Petty Whin, is alone sufficient to add a charm to the scene, while the large yellow blossoms of the Broom often take the place of, or add to, the glorious display, which is frequently varied by the globular flowers of the Whortle, and the catkins and early leaves of the Dwarf Willow. Occasionally the scene is still further varied by the evergreen, needle-like foliage of the Juniper, intermixed with the little axillary catkins; while among the surrounding grass we see the pretty flowers of the little Eyebright; the brown flowers and hairy leaves of the Field Woodrush, often growing as thickly as the grass itself; and the short, stiff leaves and sessile spikelets of the Spring Sedge.
Among the more gaudy flowers we may note the large purple heads of the Musk Thistle, a common plant on the heaths of some southern counties; and in boggy districts we may see the abundant white, silky tufts of the Hare's-tail Cotton Grass; and the flower-clusters of the Yellow Sedge.
These and the few other spring flowers of heaths and moors are described, in their order, among the summer flowers of the present chapter. Some of them are exclusively spring blossoms, and are to be seen only in their fruiting stages during the summer months, but a few continue to bloom after spring has ended, and even far into the summer. The Furze, which often commences to flower during the first few weeks of the year, may be seen, still in bloom, during July and early August; and the Eyebright may be found in flower even to the beginning of autumn. The Musk Thistle, too, though its first flower-heads may be observed in May, or, sometimes, even in April, will continue producing new flowers well into October.
A good many species are included in the present chapter, and most of these, at least, will be easily identified by the descriptions given.
On almost all heaths and downs we may see the pretty little Milkwort (_Polygala vulgaris_)--the only British representative of its order (_Polygalaceæ_), unless we regard some varieties of this variable plant as distinct species, according to the opinions of some authorities. It is a smooth or slightly hairy plant, with a woody stem that gives off several spreading branches varying from two to nine inches in length. The nature of the leaves and the arrangement of the flowers are shown in our illustration. The latter are very variable in colour, ranging from a pure white to lilac and a deep, rich blue; and each has five sepals, of which the two inner ones are wing-shaped, persistent, and coloured like the corolla; and at its base are three bracts, the middle and largest of which is as long as the short pedicel. The petals, three to five in number, are united, smaller than the wing-sepals, and the lowest is keel-shaped. The plant blooms from June to August; and the drooping flowers, though small, are often so abundant as to distinctly modify the general colouring of patches of heath and moor.
Two small species of St. John's Wort (order _Hypericaceæ_) are moderately abundant on downs and commons, especially in South Britain. The flowers of this order are all yellow, and may be easily recognised by their stamens, three or five in number, which are so much branched that they give the appearance of a large number of stamens arranged in three or five clusters. In the two species we have to consider these stamens are three in number. One is the Trailing St. John's Wort (_Hypericum humifusum_), a little tufted, prostrate plant, with small oblong leaves marked by minute transparent spots, and by black dots under the margins; and flowers with unequal sepals. The other is the Small St. John's Wort (_H. pulchrum_) which is erect, from one to two feet high, with cordate leaves that embrace the stem, and panicled flowers which are tipped with red when in the bud. Both species flower during July and August.
Passing now to the _Leguminosæ_, we take first the Broom (_Sarothamus scoparius_ or _Cytisus scoparius_)--a smooth or slightly hairy shrub, from two to six feet high, bearing large, yellow flowers during May and June. Its branches are long, erect, angular and green; and the leaves are small, ternate, with obovate, silky leaflets, or sometimes reduced to a single leaflet. The large flowers are either solitary or in pairs, shortly stalked, and arranged in the axils of the leaves of the previous summer. The fruits are black pods, usually more than an inch long, hairy round the edges of the valves, and surmounted at first by a spirally-curved style.
The Furze, Gorse, or Whin (_Ulex europæus_) is a bush of about the same size, with more or less erect branches that all terminate in a sharp, rigid point. Sometimes little lanceolate leaves may be seen near the bases of the short branches, but normally all the leaves are reduced to sharp, green spines, about half an inch long. The flowers, usually more than half an inch long, are placed singly in the axils of the thorny leaves of the previous season, and are often so abundant as to form dense, showy clusters. The Furze is abundant in all parts of Great Britain with the exception of North Scotland, and may be seen in flower from February (or even January if the weather is mild) to July.
The Dwarf Furze (_Ulex nanus_), also abundant on the heaths of most parts of Britain, commences to flower in July--just about the time that the last species ceases to produce its blossoms, and continues in bloom almost to the end of the year. It is a much smaller shrub, usually from one to two feet high, of a deeper green colour. Its stem is usually procumbent; its spines weaker, and generally turned downward; and its flowers smaller, and of a deeper, golden yellow.
On heaths and downs of most parts of England and Scotland we may meet with the Needle Green-weed, Needle Whin, or Petty Whin (_Genista anglica_)--a little spiny shrub, varying from a few inches to two feet in height, with erect stem and spreading branches. Its lower branches are simple, or are reduced to branched thorns, while the upper are compound, bearing small ovate or narrow leaves; and solitary, axillary, pale yellow flowers in short, leafy clusters. This species flowers during May and June.
In the same order (_Leguminosæ_) are two species of Rest Harrow, common on heaths and stony banks. One of these--the Common Rest Harrow (_Ononis arvensis_)--is a very variable plant, with pink or rose-coloured flowers that bloom from June to September. Its stem is sometimes procumbent and rooting at the base, sometimes ascending or nearly erect, and is thinly clothed on all sides by soft, spreading hairs. The leaves are usually trifoliate, with obovate or oblong, toothed leaflets, but the lateral leaflets are often very small or altogether wanting. The flowers are solitary, sessile or shortly-stalked, on short, lateral branches; and the standard (upper petal) is streaked with a darker colour.
The other species, shown on Plate VI, Fig. 3, is the Spiny Rest Harrow (_O. spinosa_), which, however, is sometimes regarded as a variety of the last. Its flowers are very similar in form and colour, and appear during the same time; but the stem is erect, spiny, without runners, seldom more than a foot high, and has two longitudinal rows of hairs.
Passing next to the order _Rosaceæ_, we first note the Dropwort (_Spiræa Filipendula_), of the same genus as the Meadow Sweet, frequently met with on the downs and dry pastures of England and Scotland. Its leaves are mostly radical, three or four inches long, interruptedly pinnate, with many oval or narrow segments which are themselves pinnately lobed or deeply toothed. At the base of each is a pair of stipules which are attached to the leaf-stalk throughout their length. The flowers, which appear during June and July, are white, and very much like those of the Meadow Sweet (p. 219), but are larger, without scent, and generally pink when in the bud. The height of the plant is usually from twelve to eighteen inches.
In the same order we have the Tormentil (_Potentilla Tormentilla_), which is very abundant on heaths, dry pastures and stony banks, flowering from June to August. This plant has a prostrate (rarely erect) stem, from six to ten inches long, repeatedly forked, and clothed with silky hairs. The leaves are compound, with three or five deeply-toothed leaflets; the lower ones sometimes shortly stalked, but the upper always sessile. The flowers are rather small, yellow, generally with four petals, on slender peduncles arising from the axils of the leaves or from the forks of the stem.
Our last example of the _Rosaceæ_ is the Blackberry (_Rubus fruticosus_); but it should be mentioned at once that the popular name of Blackberry embraces quite a number of shrubs, often estimated at some scores of species and varieties. We cannot here, however, attempt to divide and classify the group; but we shall simply point out the features by which the shrubs in question may be distinguished, collectively, from allied shrubs that are not properly included under the same popular name. The stem of the Blackberry grows to from three to twelve feet long, and has stiff or downy hairs in addition to the prickles. It is sometimes quite prostrate, sometimes erect, but more commonly arched, and rooting at the tips as they bend to the ground. The leaves are very variable, but usually consist of three or five large, ovate leaflets, with toothed edges, more or less downy, having curved prickles along the midrib and stalks. The flowers are white or pink, in terminal panicles, with five free sepals, five distinct petals, and many stamens. The fruit is black, and consists of several one-seeded carpels which do not readily separate from the receptacle when ripe; and the persistent sepals are usually bent downward below it.
Coming now to the _Rubiaceæ_, we have to note four species, all characterised by whorled leaves; a corolla of four, united petals; stamens attached to the corolla; and an inferior ovary, of two carpels, that ripens to a dry fruit. Three of the four belong to the Bedstraw genus (_Galium_), in which the corolla is wheel-shaped. They are:--
1. The Yellow or Ladies' Bedstraw (_G. verum_), very abundant on downs and dry banks, flowering from June to September. It has a prostrate or semi-erect, smooth stem, from six inches to two feet in length; and small, narrow leaves, six to eight in a whorl, generally slightly rough on the edges. The flowers are pale yellow, golden yellow, or greenish, arranged in dense, terminal and axillary panicles. The fruit is small and smooth.
2. The Smooth Heath Bedstraw (_G. saxatile_).--Abundant on downs, flowering from June to August. Its stem is prostrate, smooth, from four to six inches long; and the leaves are generally in whorls of five or six. The flower-stalks are numerous, erect, weak, angled, smooth, each bearing a terminal panicle of many small, white flowers. The fruit is small, with a granulated surface.
3. The Upright Bedstraw (_G. erectum_).--Not so common as the preceding, but often found on downs and hilly pastures, flowering from June to August. It is sometimes regarded as a variety of the Great Hedge Bedstraw (_G. Mollugo_), described on p. 172. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high; and the leaves, six to eight in a whorl, are very narrow, with marginal prickles pointing forwards. The flowers are white, in a panicle with slender, erect branches; and the fruit is smooth.
The remaining plant of this order is the Small Woodruff or Squinancy-wort (_Asperula cynanchica_), which is common in many parts of England and Ireland. Its stem is smooth, sometimes erect with scattered leaves, and sometimes prostrate, leafy and tufted. It varies in length from six to ten inches. The leaves are very narrow, usually four in a whorl, and very unequal. At the upper nodes two of each whorl are often reduced to mere scales, or are absent altogether. The flowers, which appear during June and July, are white or pinkish, and are clustered at the tips of the erect stems. The fruit is small, with a granulated surface.
The Small Scabious (_Scabiosa Columbaria_), of the order _Dipsaceæ_, is common on the dry heaths of England, and is readily distinguished from the Devil's-bit Scabious, which it somewhat resembles, by its deeply-divided leaves and pale purple or lilac flowers. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high. The lower leaves are rather crowded, and usually have a large, oval or oblong, terminal segment, deeply toothed or lobed, and some smaller ones below it. The stem leaves are cut into very narrow segments which are either entire or pinnately lobed. The flowers are in dense, terminal heads, surrounded by a whorl of short bracts, and intermixed with the little, narrow scales of the receptacle, the outer flowers of each head being larger than the others, and very irregular. This plant flowers during July and August.
Of the _Compositæ_ we shall first take the Hairy Hawkbit (_Leontodon hirtus_), which is very common on moors in most parts of Great Britain, flowering during July and August. Although known as the _Hairy_ Hawkbit, this plant is sometimes quite smooth; more commonly, however, the leaves and peduncles are clothed with thinly-scattered, stiff, forked hairs. Its leaves are all radical, either oblong or very narrow, with coarsely-toothed or wavy margins. The flower-heads are solitary, on peduncles from three to eight inches long, and of a bright yellow colour. Each head is surrounded by a whorl of about a dozen green, smooth bracts, outside which are several shorter ones. All the florets are strap-shaped and perfect; and the fruits, which taper at the top, are mostly crowned by a pappus of feathery hairs as long as the achene itself, with a few shorter ones outside. This species appears on Plate VI, Fig. 4.
We have next to note a few thistles that are more or less common on downs and moors, the first being the Musk Thistle (_Carduus nutans_), common in the South of England, but much less frequent in the North. It is a stout plant, usually scantily covered with a loose, cottony down, with a furrowed stem from one to three feet high. The leaves are very deeply divided pinnately, very prickly, and extend down the stem in the form of narrow, prickly wings. The flower-heads are very large, of a purple or crimson colour, drooping, usually solitary, but sometimes in loose clusters of from two to four. Each head is surrounded by numerous very narrow, stiff bracts, more or less covered with cottony down. All of these terminate in a sharp prickle which is erect on the inner bracts, but spreading or turned backward in the case of the outer ones. This thistle may be seen in flower from May to October. It appears on Plate VI, Fig. 1.
The next species--the Dwarf Thistle (_Carduus acaulis_)--is found only in the southern and midland counties of England, but is very common on some of the elevated downs of the South-East, especially on chalky soils. It has a very thick and hard rootstock, but hardly any trace of a stem, so that its spreading tuft of radical leaves lie close on the ground, around the large, purple, stemless, and, usually, solitary flower-head. The plant flowers from July to September.
The Carline Thistle (_Carlina vulgaris_), as its name shows, does not belong to the same genus as the others, from which it differs principally in having its inner bracts coloured and spreading. It is an erect plant, with a stiff stem, usually branching, from six to eighteen inches high. Its leaves are very prickly, and do not form wings down the stem. The flower-heads are particularly interesting, having much the appearance of everlasting flowers. In fact, the whole plant is of such a stiff and dry nature that it undergoes but little change in appearance when cut and preserved. The outer bracts are leafy and spreading, with strong, prickly teeth or lobes; and the inner ones are very narrow, entire, white or pale yellow, of a chaffy nature and very glossy. The latter are very sensitive to atmospheric conditions, spreading horizontally when the air is dry, and closing over the florets in humid air; and they respond so readily to the changed conditions that their movements may be watched as they are transferred from warm, dry air to a moist chamber, or _vice versa_. This plant is common on the downs of England and Ireland, and flowers from July to September.
Our last Composite flower is the Common Chamomile (_Anthemis nobilis_), which is abundant on the downs of the southern counties of England, flowering from July to September. It is an aromatic herb, with a procumbent stem, from six to twelve inches long, and ascending, leafy, flowering branches. The leaves are bipinnate, slightly downy, with very fine, almost hairlike, segments. The flower-heads are terminal, with a white ray and yellow disc, surrounded by blunt bracts the inner of which have membranous tips. On the receptacle are little broad scales, nearly as long as the disc florets.
On heaths almost everywhere we may see the pretty Roundleaved Bell-flower or Harebell (_Campanula rotundifolia_), which displays its gracefully drooping bells from July to September. It has a slender, smooth, erect or ascending stem, from six to twenty inches high, which is usually branched. Its popular and scientific names both appear to be inappropriate if we examine the plant during its flowering season, for the only leaves then usually observable are the very narrow ones, generally quite entire, attached to the stem; earlier in the year, however, it has a few round or heart-shaped leaves, with long stalks, close to the base of the stem; but these commonly die about the time that the flowers commence to appear. The flowers are sometimes solitary, but often form a loose raceme of several bells.
The Clustered Bell-flower (_Campanula glomerata_) is common on the downs of most parts of England, and often very abundant in the South. It has a stiff, hairy, erect, angular, unbranched stem, from three to eighteen inches high. On some of the dry, chalky downs of the South the plant is often very dwarfed, being scarcely noticeable among the rather closely-cropped grass. The leaves are oblong or lanceolate, with crenate margins, rough and hairy, the lower ones stalked, but the upper sessile and clasping the stem. The flowers are about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and form a dense cluster among the upper leaves. The corolla is blue, bell-shaped, with five spreading lobes; and the fruit is a short, broad capsule, surmounted by the teeth of the calyx, and opens, when ripe, by slits near the base. This species flowers during July and August. It may be identified by reference to Fig. 2 of Plate VI.