Chapter 16

THE COLLAPSE OF THE CONFEDERACY

As one looks to-day over the sources of the history of the great Civil War, it seems plain that the responsible spokesmen of the Confederacy should have made overtures to the North for peace on the basis of an indissoluble union of the warring sections in the autumn of 1863. But the Southern leader who proposed reunion at that time would have been regarded as untrue to his cause or unduly timid. Neither Jefferson Davis nor General Lee had any thought of surrender, though from the attitude of representatives of the United States it was plain that an offer to return to the Union would have been met with ample guaranties to the owners of slaves and full amnesty to those who had brought on the war. Alexander Stephens alone foresaw the outcome and began now to ask for a new national convention in which terms of restoration and permanent union should be fixed. Stephens was, however, already out of harmony with President Davis; and the State of Georgia, led by Joseph E. Brown, the Governor, and the Confederate Vice-President himself, was regarded by loyal Southerners as recalcitrant and therefore not authorized to propose solutions of the problem. The cup of Southern defeat and humiliation had not been drained to the bottom.

The Confederacy owed, at the end of the year 1863, $1,221,000,000; the State Governments, the counties and cities, probably owed as much more. Paper money, the only medium of exchange, was fast giving way to barter. One dollar in gold was worth twenty dollars in Confederate currency. The monthly wage of a common soldier was not sufficient to buy a bushel of wheat. People who lived in the cities converted their tiny yards into vegetable gardens; the planters no longer produced cotton and tobacco, but supplies for "their people" and for the armies. The annual export of cotton fell from 2,000,000 bales in 1860 to less than 200,000 in 1863, and most of this came from areas under Federal control. The yearly returns to the planters from foreign markets alone had fallen from the huge returns of 1860 to almost nothing in 1863, and with the disappearance of gold, or international money, from the South, the Governments, Confederate and State, found their systems of taxation breaking down. Early in 1864 taxes were made payable in corn, bacon, or wheat, not in paper money, which every one refused to accept at face value. Planters and farmers great and small were now required to contribute one tenth of their crops to the Government. This would have given to the armies an ample supply, but the railroads were already breaking down, while wagons and country roads were also unable to bear the unparalleled burden. It was a difficult situation. The States made it worse by resisting the authority of the Confederacy; while the Confederacy was unable either to raise money on loans or gather taxes in kind from farmers who preferred always to pay in "lawful money." The Confederacy was getting into debt beyond all chance of redemption, and the States were likewise mortgaged to the utmost limit of their credit before the end of the year 1864.

But the tax law of 1864 was only one of the burdens under which Southerners, who had never accustomed themselves to paying taxes in any large way, groaned. In 1862 General Lee had urged upon Davis a conscript law which would keep his ranks full. Congress grudgingly enacted the required legislation, and later more drastic laws were passed; but the simple people who occupied the remote mountain sections of the South and the small farmers and tenants of the sandy ridges or piney woods responded slowly when confronted by the officers of the law. Thousands positively refused service in the armies and resorted to the dense forests or swamps, where they were fed by friends and neighbors who refused to assist the government recruiting agents. In the mountains of Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee these people were so numerous that the presence of troops was required to keep up the semblance of obedience to law. Local warfare was the result in many places. Unionists who had not been able to join the armies of the United States assisted those who refused to serve in the Confederate ranks. As time went on thousands of deserters joined the recalcitrants in the Southern hills, and during the last year of the war it was a serious problem of State and Confederate authorities what to do with these people, who now numbered quite a hundred thousand men.

Resistance to tax-gatherers and to recruiting officers, and the despondency which followed the disasters of 1863 and the tightening of the Federal blockade, led to dissatisfaction and even resistance in the loyal black belts. In North Carolina a peace movement, led by an able newspaper editor, W. W. Holden, gained the sympathies of Governor Vance, who had never liked Jefferson Davis nor really sympathized with the cause of secession. In Virginia the friends of John B. Floyd, who had been summarily dismissed from the army for his hasty surrender of Fort Donelson in 1862, aided by the followers of John M. Daniel, editor of the Richmond _Examiner_, did what they could to embarrass the Confederate President. The Rhett influence in South Carolina and the long-standing quarrel of Governor Brown of Georgia with Jefferson Davis still further weakened the arm of Confederate administration. Even William L. Yancey, the most fiery of the secessionist leaders of 1860, devoted all his eloquence and abilities, from 1861 to the time of his death in 1863, to attacking the Government of his own making. And to make matters worse, the supreme courts of North Carolina and Georgia undertook to annul the conscript law and other important acts of the Confederate Congress, and thus inaugurated a war of the judges which seriously undermined the prestige and the morale of the Confederate Government. Confederate officers enrolled men for the army only to have them released by state judges supported by their respective governors. All the influence and abilities of Lee and Davis were required to prevent a break-down in the spring of 1864, when the calls for more troops and additional supplies were so numerous and pressing. West Virginia was gone, Kentucky and Missouri, too, were wholly within the Federal lines; and most of Tennessee, half of Mississippi, and nearly all the region beyond the great river were lost to the Richmond Government. New Orleans and Norfolk were once more parts of the United States, while large strips of territory in eastern North Carolina, South Carolina, and Florida were held in subjection by frowning gunboats.

A little cotton found its way through the beleaguered ports of Mobile, Savannah, Charleston, and Wilmington to Europe, and brought the lucky blockade runners and their owners rich returns. But trade was so small and the dangers of capture were so many that few could look with any real hope for a return of prosperity until the war was over. Europe must intervene if cotton and tobacco and sugar were to regain their kingly state. And this was the warmest wish of the Confederate chieftains. When the battle of Fredericksburg was fought, all the world thought that the desired recognition would come at once. James M. Mason, the commissioner to England, wrote home that a large majority of the House of Commons was willing to vote for acknowledging Southern independence, and Charles Francis Adams, the Minister of the United States, was of the same opinion. Gladstone, then one of the most popular members of the British Cabinet, and a majority of his colleagues favored the South. Palmerston declared, when the Emancipation Proclamation was read to him, that Lincoln abolished slavery where he had no power to do so and protected it where he had power to abolish it. Of the million voters in England at least three fourths seemed ready to vote for Southern recognition, and all the great manufacturers, the powerful merchants, the country gentry, and great nobles were openly contemptuous of the cause and policy of the North. Carlyle ridiculed the "Yankees," and Dickens made fun of Lincoln, Sumner, Chase, and the rest. It was apparently only a matter of weeks before Lord Palmerston would ask Parliament to authorize him to intervene in order to stop the "useless" bloodshed and slaughter of the war between the States.

In France the ruling class, the bankers, the industrialists, the higher clergy, and many of the party of free trade supported Napoleon III in his well-known friendliness for the South. Moreover, the Emperor was promoting a scheme to build for his Austrian friend, Maximilian, an empire in Mexico, where the perennial war of factions was hotly raging. Davis might aid such a move as a consideration for recognition, and certainly Seward was too busy with his own troubles to intervene on behalf of an "outworn" Monroe Doctrine. Slidell, the shrewd Confederate commissioner to France, led the Emperor to expect Southern support of his scheme, and at the same time borrowed millions of dollars in gold from rich Paris bankers and hurried it off to the famishing Confederacy. No revolutionary power ever had a fairer chance of winning its goal than did that of Davis and Lee in the autumn of 1862 and winter of 1863.

The unexpected often happens. While Charles Francis Adams was being coldly elbowed out of the salons of an unsympathetic English nobility, and when Confederate bonds were selling both in London and Paris at or near par, Secretary Chase sent Robert J. Walker, the former Mississippi repudiator and successful Secretary of the Treasury under Polk, to Europe for the purpose of breaking down Confederate credit and building up that of the United States.

The commissioner of the Treasury Department began the publication of a series of articles on the financial page of the London _Times_ which seemed to show that Davis had been responsible for the repudiation of a large issue of state bonds, many of them held in London, in 1843. All that Mason and Slidell could do did not remove the suspicion that the Confederate President would "repudiate" again. Men who had loaned large sums of money to Mississippi could not be made to understand that Walker himself had been the responsible agent of Mississippi in those days. From the beginning of this unpleasant advertising of former American financiering, in which Northern States had sinned quite as flagrantly as Southern, Confederate credit in Europe declined. Her bonds were soon withdrawn from the market. At the same time Walker succeeded in borrowing $250,000,000 from European bankers, and thus at a critical period he was able to prop the declining fortunes of his country. To say that Walker destroyed the credit of the Confederacy and at the same time restored that of the Union would be an exaggeration. But his services were of incalculable value to the nationalist cause. When, therefore, Napoleon asked England to join him in intervening between the warring parties of the United States there was other reason, besides the strong and vigorous activity of Charles Francis Adams, for the British Ministry to postpone or decline coöperation.

Thus the bright Confederate outlook of 1862 had become dark in May, 1864, when General Grant, who had been brought from the field of his brilliant operations in the West, took command of the army with which Meade had expelled Lee from Pennsylvania. But conditions were not encouraging in the North. Lincoln's popularity was still in eclipse. Congress was resentful of his failures. Charles Sumner was denouncing him every day in private and opposing him in public. Secretary Chase was using the machinery of his great office to deprive his chief of a renomination. The radicals of the East were still refusing their approval of a policy which compromised with slavery in the border States, and the Unionists of the Northwest were resentful toward a President who was making war upon slavery. The Democrats of the North were apparently stronger than ever, and their criticism of the Government for suspending the writ of _habeas corpus_ and for hundreds of arbitrary arrests gave conservative men pause. To all this must be added the resistance in 1863 to the military drafts, the riots, the extraordinary prosperity of business men which made recruiting, even with the aid of laws almost as drastic as those of the South, almost impossible. The cost in bounties to nation, state, and counties of one enlistment in 1864 was about $1000; and when a regiment was thus made up, a third of the men sometimes deserted within a few months and reënlisted under other names, thus securing a second or a third series of bounties.

Still the success of the Northern cause seemed to depend on the renomination of Lincoln, for any other Republican Unionist would certainly be defeated by the Democrats, who were fast uniting upon General McClellan, exceedingly popular with both War Democrats and those who had opposed the war from the beginning. If the outlook in the South was discouraging, that of the North was almost as depressing.

With public opinion keen, critical, and watchful, the great duel reopened in Virginia and Georgia in May, 1864. Grant attacked with an army of 120,000 men; Lee returned the blow with a force of about 60,000 seasoned and resolute soldiers. From May 3 to June 12 the two great generals fought over the tangled thickets and sandy ridges which extend from the Wilderness to Cold Harbor near Richmond, where McClellan had failed in 1862. Grant failed in every attempt to defeat his foe, and he lost in that short period about 54,000 brave men--an army almost equal in numbers to that which they opposed. The people and the papers of the North were demanding the removal of their last general; United States bonds and paper money were a drug on the stock market; it was reported that Grant was drinking deeply. Lincoln knew that to remove his general would be tantamount to surrender, for B. F. Butler, then on the lower James, would be the only and last resort, and Lee would make short work of that remarkable commander. There was a little encouragement in the fighting of Sherman against Joseph E. Johnston, who was yielding more and more of northern Georgia to his rival. But June and July, 1864, were the darkest hours of the Union cause and of Lincoln, its champion.

Lee now felt himself secure in his position near Malvern Hill, and expected daily to hear of the removal of his antagonist. But Grant, to the surprise of all, performed the greatest feat of his military career by safely placing all his army, still 120,000 strong, on the south side of the James River, where there were no intrenchments and no other obstacles to their marching upon Petersburg, the key to Richmond. This was done with incredible facility, June 16, 17, and 18, while Lee quietly waited for the enemy to attack him once more. While Lee thus rested on his arms, Grant carried his army through the open country east of Petersburg. Too late, June 18, the Confederate commander hastened all his forces to the new scene of war. Grant had played an incomparable ruse, and the Union army entered, with returning faith in its leader, upon the last phase of its great task--the ruin of Lee.

Meanwhile General Sherman, with a force of 80,000, had been driving Joseph E. Johnston, with 50,000 men, from Dalton in northern Georgia toward Atlanta. From May 4 until July 18 the two armies maneuvered and fought--each seeking without success to surprise the other. On the 17th of July Sherman crossed the Chattahoochee some twenty miles north of Atlanta. Georgia and the cotton belt of the lower South were in a panic. Davis, never quite satisfied with Johnston's operations, yielded to the clamors of Senators and Representatives, as well as military men, and removed the general. John B. Hood, the new commander, began at once a series of battles around the doomed city, losing in every encounter. Atlanta fell on September 2. Sherman was left in quiet possession of northern Georgia, while the Confederate army marched toward Nashville in the hope of forcing a retreat and perhaps of regaining Tennessee. With Grant at Petersburg, whose fall would compel the evacuation of Richmond, and Sherman the master of Georgia, for such was the meaning of Hood's movements, the days of the Confederacy seemed to be numbered.

Before these military successes had been gained, the leaders of the Union cause were compelled to nominate a candidate for the Presidency. Sumner, Greeley, William Cullen Bryant, and many other men of great influence opposed Lincoln's renomination. A convention of radical Republicans met at Cleveland during the last days of May. It nominated John C. Frémont for President. But the regular Republican Convention met a week later in Baltimore, formally disavowed its name, and assumed that of the National Union party. Its chairman was Robert J. Breckinridge, a Kentucky preacher and Unionist. Lincoln was renominated without opposition, and, as a bid to the border States, Andrew Johnson, Union Democrat of Tennessee, was nominated for Vice-President. However, the reverses of Grant in Virginia weakened the position of the Administration, and before the 1st of August trusted advisers of the Government telegraphed "The apathy of the public mind is fearful." The price of gold ranged during the summer from 200 to 285, and United States securities sold at less than half their face value. The President was compelled to order a draft of 500,000 men in July; the country met the order with a groan. Congress asked for the appointment of a day of fasting and penance, and Lincoln set the first Thursday in August as a "day of national humiliation and prayer." So portentous was the outlook that before the middle of August most of the eminent men in the Union party had lost all heart. Greeley wrote, "Lincoln is already beaten." A committee waited on the President to ask his formal withdrawal from the canvass.

Late in August, when the Unionist hopes were at their lowest, the Democrats met in Chicago. Governor Seymour, of New York, Representatives Pendleton, of Ohio, Voorhees, of Indiana, and the unpopular Clement L. Vallandigham were in charge of the proceedings. Southern leaders came over from Canada and even representatives of the Sons of Liberty, a group of Northwesterners who were resisting the National Administration, were participants in the convention. Vallandigham, a "peace-at-any-price" man, secured the passage of a resolution which declared the war a failure, but the War Democrats dictated the nomination and made George B. McClellan the candidate of the party. The general, who had fought some of the great battles of the war, repudiated the Vallandigham resolution, but accepted the proffered leadership. On the day the convention adjourned it seemed clear to the thoughtful men of the country that the Democrats would win the election, and that they would in that event bring the war to a close by acknowledging Southern independence.

But before the delegates had reached their homes, the telegraph announced the fall of Atlanta. Commodore Farragut had just taken Mobile after a long and heroic struggle. President Lincoln, a masterful manipulator of popular opinion, now called upon the country to assemble in their churches and give thanks to God for the splendid victories of Sherman and Farragut. Early in September General Phil Sheridan invaded the Shenandoah Valley, made famous by Jackson in the beginning of the war, and won a decisive victory at Winchester. Before the end of the month he had burned thousands of barns, slaughtered many thousands of cattle, and destroyed the newly harvested grain in all that rich region. His terse remark that a crow could not cross the Valley without taking with him his provisions received widespread applause, and showed what a desperate character the war had taken. Sherman, too, took up his march through the rich black belt of Georgia, destroying everything that came within his reach. The people of the North took heart, especially the stiff-backed Republicans who during the two years preceding had found little to approve in the measures of the Government. Sumner, who had called Lincoln the American Louis XVI; Thaddeus Stevens, who had declared that he knew only one Lincoln man in the House of Representatives; Horace Greeley, Secretary Chase, and even Governor Andrew of Massachusetts, all united now to praise the President and urge his cause before the country. The last great crisis of the war in the North had been passed. A decisive victory at the polls was the verdict of the people, and the homely, honest, and kindly Lincoln was commissioned to bring the war to a conclusion and then to reconstruct the Union.

The South observed movements in the North now with hopeful, now with regretful, scrutiny. As a desperate stroke Davis had sent Jacob Thompson to Canada to assist in the release of Confederate prisoners and to stir up the Sons of Liberty to rise against the Federal Government. In October raiding parties were sent into New England, and an effort was made to set fire to New York City in retaliation for the destruction of Southern property by order of Federal generals. These efforts proved abortive, perhaps adding many votes to the majority with which Lincoln was reëlected. And when the Confederate Congress reassembled in November the fortunes of the South were recognized as almost past remedy. Georgia did not rise to overwhelm Sherman; the supplies painfully collected in thousands of _dépôts_ could not be carried to Lee's army in Petersburg; the railroads were almost useless, and starvation confronted those who lived in the larger towns. Only a great and overwhelming victory over Grant could save the South, and that seemed impossible when thousands of Confederate soldiers had deserted their standards. With 40,000 men it was not likely that Lee could raise the siege of Petersburg or capture any large part of Grant's army of nearly 140,000.

In the hope of filling the thin ranks of the Southern armies, President Davis recommended to Congress the enlistment of the blacks; and to secure foreign recognition, he sent Duncan F. Kenner to Europe to offer emancipation of the slaves. But Congress regarded these moves with ill-concealed contempt and offered counter-solutions. Alexander Stephens, the Vice-President, led a movement to impeach Davis. Powerful influences in Virginia supported Stephens; in North Carolina, opposition to the Confederate authorities had been carried so far that such a proposal was regarded with approval. The Rhett party in South Carolina and the Joseph E. Brown following in Georgia were all ready to follow Stephens. A large section of public opinion had in fact been prepared in all these States for such a plan. A committee of Congress was formed and William C. Rives was sent to General Lee to inquire if he would take charge of the affairs of the Confederacy as sole dictator. Lee declined the dubious honor, and Congress, not knowing what else to do, undertook in early January, 1865, to carry out the recommendations of the President.

By the end of December, 1864, General Sherman had captured Savannah, and was ready to begin his march northward to support Grant. On the suggestion of Montgomery Blair, father of Postmaster-General Blair, a conference was arranged with the Federal authorities, to take place on a United States steamer in Hampton Roads. Lincoln and Seward thus met, on February 3, Alexander Stephens, former United States Judge Campbell, and Senator R. M. T. Hunter, all identified with the Confederate peace party. Satisfactory terms could not be agreed upon and the renewal of the conflict was ordered. As the commissioners passed through the lines, the news of their failure was conveyed to both armies, and these brave soldiers of many campaigns, having long since learned to respect each other, wept aloud. The failure of these negotiations confirmed Davis in his position and he now made one more appeal to the people of the South to save their cause by a popular uprising. Stephens and the rest lent their support to the call; but it was all in vain, for the sands of the Confederacy were almost run. General Sherman with 60,000 men was marching through South Carolina. Columbia was laid in ashes on the night of February 17, and the naked chimneys of the cotton belt from Atlanta to middle South Carolina marked the course of the Federal army. The people of North Carolina trembled at the approach of the victorious enemy. Joseph E. Johnston was finally restored to the command of the remnants of his former army and the local militia which undertook to delay the progress of the Federal forces. Well-to-do families fled to places of refuge; horses and cattle were driven to the best hiding-places that could be found; the silver plate and the little gold that remained among the people were buried under woodpiles or deserted houses. The negroes awaited with stolid curiosity the approach of the "Yankees," who were by this time vaguely recognized as the "deliverers"; while the poor whites were thankful that their poverty for once proved a blessing.

In February the Confederate Congress offered a certain number of slaves their liberty on condition of their fighting for Southern independence; but it was too late for any test of the radical policy. The new commissioner to Europe had hardly reached London before the collapse of his Government was seen to be imminent. The debts of the Confederate, state, and city governments of the South had grown so rapidly that no one knew just what they were; the armies of Lee and Johnston were forced to forage upon the country nearest at hand. Soldiers were barefoot, half-naked, and dispirited. Grant pressed steadily upon Lee at Petersburg, Sheridan approached Lee's rear from Lynchburg, Virginia, and B. F. Butler, with 40,000 men, threatened Richmond from the lower James River. To escape the toils of the enemy, Lee decided to retreat toward the west. Jefferson Davis received the dispatch which told of Lee's new purpose and advised the evacuation of the capital about noon on April 2. It was Sunday, and the people were at church. Rapidly the fateful news spread. An indescribable scene followed. Men, women, and children hastened out of the doomed city with the little clothing they could carry in their hands, or begged the owners of carts and wagons to come to their assistance. Thousands thus sought to escape the avenger, while the high officials of the Government and their families went away on the last train. Documents, private correspondence, stores of all sorts, tobacco, and other property were burned to prevent their falling into the hands of the hated enemy. Early Monday morning the city was deserted save by certain hangers-on, men and women, white and black, who hoped to pick up something from the wreckage of their neighbors' fortunes. The local government ordered the thousands of barrels of whiskey, still in the bar-rooms, emptied into the streets. People drank from the gutters, and drunkenness soon added to the difficulties of the situation. Federal troops entered the city, already in flames, and before nine o'clock the Union colors flew from the flagpole of the ancient capital of Virginia.

Davis and his Cabinet escaped to Danville, Virginia, where they remained until the news of Lee's surrender at Appomattox reached them on April 10, when they retreated toward Charlotte, North Carolina. Lee had seen the inevitable, and on April 9, near the little village of Appomattox, he asked Grant for terms. The Union commander was generous, and allowed the 28,000 heroic Confederates to return to their homes, giving only their word of honor that they would keep the peace in the future. A few days later near Durham, North Carolina, Johnston surrendered to Sherman on similar terms to those which Grant had given Lee. The President and members of the defunct government of the Confederate States of America hastened on to Georgia, where Davis was captured on May 10 and sent to Fortress Monroe as a state prisoner. Other forces of the South, scattered over the wide area of their desolate country, surrendered during the month of May; and most people turned to cultivation of their crops in the hope that a bountiful nature might restore somewhat their broken fortunes. The bitter cup had been drained. The cause of the planters had gone down in irretrievable disaster. For forty years they had contended with their rivals of the North, and having staked all on the wager of battle they had lost. Just four years before they had entered with unsurpassed zeal and enthusiasm upon the gigantic task of winning their independence. They had made the greatest fight in history up to that time, lost the flower of their manhood and wealth untold. They now renewed once and for all time their allegiance to the Union which had up to that time been an experiment, a government of uncertain powers. More than three hundred thousand lives and not less than four billions of dollars had been sacrificed in the fight of the South. The planter culture, the semi-feudalism of the "old South," was annihilated, while the industrial and financial system of the East was triumphant. The cost to the North had been six hundred thousand lives and an expense to the governments, state and national, of at least five billion dollars. But the East was the mistress of the United States, and the social and economic ideals of that section were to be stamped permanently upon the country.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

J. K. Hosmer, _The Outcome of the Civil War_ (1900), in _American Nation_ Series; J. A. Woodburn, _The Life of Thaddeus Stevens_ (1913); E. P. Oberholtzer, _Jay Cooke, Financier of the Civil War_ (1907); J. C. Schwab, _The Confederate States, A Financial and Industrial History_ (1901); E. D. Fite, _Social and Industrial Conditions in the North During the Civil War_ (1910), W. F. Fox, _Regimental Losses in the American Civil War_ (1889).

Of special sectional value is W. D. Foulke's _The Life of Oliver P. Morton_ (1899). Henry Wilson's _The Rise and Fall of the Slave Power_ (1872-77); A. H. Stephens's _A Constitutional View of the Late War Between the States_ (1868-70) are typical of many others. Some of the best writers on the life and ideals of the old South are Mrs. Roger A. Pryor, _Reminiscences of Peace and War_ (1906), and _My Day_ (1911); Mrs. James Chesnut, _A Diary from Dixie_ (1905); Mrs. Clement C. Clay, _A Belle of the Sixties_ (1904); and Mrs. Myrta L. Avery, _Dixie after the War_ (1906). Mrs. Jefferson Davis's _A Memoir of Jefferson Davis_ (1890) is rather personal and profuse, but always more important than the more pretentious work of her husband, Jefferson Davis, in his _Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government_, already mentioned.

A rare source book for the South is J. B. Jones's _A Rebel War Clerk's Diary_ (1866), and an even more important one for the North is Gideon Welles's _Diary_ (1911). Edward McPherson's _Political History of the United States During the Great Rebellion_ (1865); William McDonald's _Select Statutes and Other Documents Illustrative of the History of the United States, 1861-98_ (1903); J. D. Richardson's _Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Confederacy_ (1905); and _Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia and Register, 1862-1903_, give the most important official documents and full accounts of public events as they occurred.

INDEX

Abolitionists, societies started 163; theories and aims, 164; petitions in House, 165; preparing for Republican party, 166; more in politics, 170; and Wilmot Proviso, 170; in 1850, 176.

Adams, Charles Francis, fears English intervention, 314, 315, 316.

Adams, John, 19.

Adams, John Quincy, coalition with Clay, 1, 2, 3, 4; support in 1828, 14, 15, 17; popular and electoral votes, 18; unpopular in Southwest, 21; and Georgia, 21, 39, 55, 56; in House, 66; for Bank, 68, 70, 72, 74, 84; attacking Van Buren, 96-105, 107, 108, 109; and petitions on slavery, 119, 126; for secession, 127, 164, 165; denounces Mexican War, 157; anti-slavery leader, 164; address on taxes, 167, 242, 252.

Agassiz, Alexander, 225.

Agassiz, Louis, naturalist, 225.

Agriculture, methods of, 211.

Alabama, and Indians, 8; immigration to, 13; population (1830, 1840), 13, 90; for Jackson, 72; being filled up, 89, 90; for Van Buren, 111; "Slavery a blessing," 119; and Wilmot Proviso, 171, 264; secession of, 271.

_Albany Journal_, friendly to Confederacy, 272.

Alcott, Amos Bronson, 225.

Alien and Sedition Laws, 161.

Allen, William, friendly to Calhoun, 120; expansionist, 149.

Allston, sculptor, 54.

Amendments, on presidential term, appointment of members of Congress, limiting Supreme Court, 16.

American Fur Company, 35.

American National Academy of Science, 225.

American party. _See_ Know-Nothing party.

American Revolution, 47, 84; debt paid, 99.

American System, Clay's, 67, 74, 109; to be carried out, 114; laid aside, 145.

Anderson, Major Robert, commanding at Fort Sumter, 273.

Andrew, Governor, of Massachusetts, supports Lincoln, 322.

Antietam, battle of, 302.

Appomattox, Lee surrenders at, 327.

Arkansas, in cotton belt, 12; for Van Buren, 111; for Pacific Railroad, 233; secession of, 275.

Art, American, in 1860, 225.

Ashburton, Lord, Minister to United States, 123; Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 123, 124, 125.

Astor, John Jacob, fur trade, 35.

Atchison, David, expansionist, 150; pro-slavery leader, 238.

_Atlantic Monthly_, founded, 227.

Austin, Stephen, in Texas, 120.

Bache, Alexander Dallas, scientist, 224.

Baldwin, Joseph G., 227.

Baltimore, Maryland, for Adams, 15, 41, 46, 48; newspapers for Bank, 79; Democratic Convention of 1844, 128; wheat market, 133; sub-treasury at, 151; Democratic Convention of 1848, 172, 187.

Baltimore and Ohio Canal, 46.

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 192.

Bancroft, George, in Polk's Cabinet, 149.

Bank, Second National, 45; and Jackson, 60, 65, 66, 67; and Clay, 67; bill for re-charter, 67; Biddle, president, 67; sentiment for re-charter, 68; Jackson's veto, 69; in campaign of 1832, 70; and Jackson, 77; creditor of members of Congress, 78; newspaper support of, 79; government deposits withheld, 79; fighting Jackson and the people, 80; defeated, 82; decline in power, 83; and French claims, 85; out of politics, 91; under Pennsylvania charter, 98; European stockholders, 99, 103, 107.

Banks, in United States, capital, 45; men in control, 47; banking area, 47; state banks and Jackson, 78, 79; expansion of credit, 98; increase of members, 98; panic of 1837, 102; suspend specie payment, 102; New York laws, 105; state, 151; of New York, 189; of Confederacy, 286.

Banks, N. P., 253, 299.

Baptists, in West, 33; in South, 143; and slavery, 143, 163; increase in membership, 145; in South, 218; clergy of high character, 220; members (1860), 220; and slavery, 221; educational institutions, 222.

Barbecues, 209, 212.

Barbour, James, 17.

Baring Brothers of London, and American stocks, 99.

Barry, W. T., Postmaster-General, 58.

Bates, Edward, presidential timber, 257, 262, 263.

Beauregard, General P. G. T., and Fort Sumter, 274, 276, 281; in battle of Bull Run, 285; in battle of Shiloh, 294.

Beecher, Henry Ward, 219.

Bell, John, for President, 261.

Belmont, August, 258.

Benton, Thomas H., against Adams, 16; for preëmption law, 16, 60, 65; against Florida Treaty, 16; imperialist, 25; for free homesteads, 27, 30, 32; Foot Resolution, 60; land program defeated, 65, 75, 82, 90, 102, 105, 108, 109; supporting Tyler, 115, 126; Oregon, 127, 129; Texas and Oregon, 132, 147, 149, 150; for commander-in-chief in Mexico, 155; and California, 175; and crisis of 1850, 175, 242.

Berrien, John M., Attorney-General, 58.

Biddle, Nicholas, president of Second National Bank, 67, 70; and Jackson, 77; policy for Bank, 78; control of politicians and newspapers, 78; fighting Jackson and people, 79; defeated, 82; policy changed, 83, 112.

Birney, James G., anti-slavery worker, 119, 161.

Black Hawk, 87.

Black Warrior, trouble with Spain, 234.

Blair, Frank P., 58.

Blair, Montgomery, 324.

Bonds, United States, 291, 293; Confederate in Europe, 293.

Border States, Republican party, 302.

Boston, financial center, 45, 46, 48; shipping and Hayne, 48; Transcendental Club, 52; philosophy and religious reform, 52, 84, 129; alliance with South, 162, 193, 202, 205; clergy and slavery, 222.

Bragg, General Braxton, in battle of Shiloh, 294; in Kentucky, 295, 300; battle of Murfreesboro, 295; withdraws to Chattanooga, 295, 303; reinforced, 307; beats Rosecrans, 307; character, 307.

Branch, John, Secretary of the Navy, 58.

Breckinridge, John C., for Vice-President, 245; for President, 261.

Breese, Sidney, friend of Calhoun, 120.

Brinkerhoff, Jacob, and Wilmot Proviso, 169.

Brooks, Preston, assault on Sumner, 245.

Brown, John, in Kansas, 249; raid into Virginia, 258; capture and execution, 259.

Brown, Governor, Joseph E., of Georgia, distrusted by Confederates, 309; opposed to Davis, 312, 324.

Bryant, William Cullen, and New York _Evening Post_, 53; against Lincoln, 320.

Buchanan, James, Secretary of State, 148; and Oregon, 149; for all Mexico, 157; Minister to England, 234; Ostend Manifesto, 235; Democratic nominee for President, 245; elected, 246; slights Douglas, 247; Mexico and Cuba, 247; Kansas question, 249; Lecompton Constitution, 253; Douglas opposes, 253; opposes Douglas, 256, 265, 268; and secession, 270.

Buell, Don C., at Louisville, 284; in battle of Shiloh, 294; across Tennessee, 294; opening the Mississippi, 294.

Buena Vista, battle of, 155.

Bull Run, first battle of, 285; second battle of, 300.

Burnside, Ambrose E., given command of the Army of the Potomac, 303; loses at Fredericksburg, 303; resignation, 303.

Business, prosperous in North during Civil War, 292.

Butler, General B. F., 318, 326.

Butler, Pierce, abused by Sumner, 245.

Calhoun, John C., 4, 5; Nationalist, 5; Pennsylvania and, 5; against tariff, 6, 66, 68; alliance with Jackson, 6; strong in Virginia, 11, 16; and Jackson's first Cabinet, 21; true to West, 30; powerless against Jackson, 37, 39, 52, 54, 58, 60, 61, 62; break with Jackson, 63, 64, 67; and Van Buren, 64, 68; defied by Clay, 67; and Bank, 68, 82; Nullification, 71, 72, 75; isolated in 1832, 73; and compromise of 1833, 74; and Force Bill, 74; defeated and isolated, 82, 84, 91; hostile to Jackson, 92; supporting Van Buren, 94, 108, 112; for Independent Treasury, 104; for Texas, 105, 107, 121, 126, 147; supporting Tyler, 115, 116; retirement, 117; and Clay reconciled, 117; candidacy for President, 117; on slavery, 119; character, 119; Secretary of State, 127; and Walker, 129; for Polk, 130; Texas Treaty, 130; Presidency promised to, 131, 132; Unitarian, 143; and sectionalism, 145; and Polk, 148; and Oregon, 149, 150, 152; and all Mexico, 158; and abolition agitation, 165; and compromise of 1850, 176, 178; demands for slavery, 178; death, 180, 242, 243; doctrine of, and Dred Scott case, 248, 263.

California, Tyler for, 125, 131, 132, 152, 154; occupied by United States, 154; gold discovered, 174; Taylor for admitting, 176, 199, 232; for Pacific Railroad, 233; for Buchanan, 246.

Cameron, Simon, 257, 262, 263.

Campbell, Judge, of Alabama, Confederate Commissioner, 324.

Campbellites, Calvinistic, 218, 222.

Canada, revolt and American aid, 105, 120, 122, 153.

Canals, constructed in West, 90; speculation, 91, 92.

Carey and Lea, Philadelphia, publishing activities, 53.

Caroline, the, affair of, with England, 105, 120, 123.

Cartwright, Peter, salary, 31.

Cass, Lewis, 15, 25; Secretary of War, 65; Oregon and Texas, 132; expansionist, 150, 157, 158; for President, 172; Nicholson letter, 172; defeat, 173; and crisis of 1850, 176.

Catholics, 216; and slavery, 221.

Cerro Gordo, battle of, 155.

Chancellorsville, battle of, 305.

Chandler, Zachary, 241; uncompromising, 273.

Channing, William Ellery, 52.

Charleston, S.C., 53, 54; and abolition mail, 165; spring resort, 214; blockade-running from, 313.

Chase, Salmon P., for Wilmot Proviso, 171, 184, 202; against Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 240, 241, 242; and Kansas, 245; and Ohio, 251, 257, 262, 265; uncompromising, 273; Secretary of Treasury, 291; difficulties, 292; for immediate emancipation, 301, 315; working against Lincoln, 316; supports Lincoln, 322.

Cherokees. _See_ Indians.

Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, 46.

Chestnut, Mrs. James, 215, 281.

Chicago, 187, 192, 193, 202; and Douglas, 204; growth, 204; Pacific Railroad idea, 204, 210.

Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, 192.

Chickasaws. _See_ Indians.

Children, in factories, 210.

China, Tyler and, 126.

Choate, Rufus, became Democrat, 246.

Choctaws. _See_ Indians.

Christian Church. _See_ Campbellites.

Churches, support, 50; strictness moderated, 50, 143; and slavery, 143, 146, 163; members and capacity, in 1860, 220; of South, for slavery and war, 278.

Churubusco, battle of, 156.

Cincinnati, pork-packing and manufacturing, 35, 202, 210.

Cities, wretched industrial life, 210.

Civil service, Van Buren and spoils system, 96.

Clay, Henry, coalition with Adams, 2; Secretary of State, 3, 14, 15, 16, 17, 21; barely reëlected to the Senate in 1831, 22; fast life, 22; duelist, 32, 33; Mechanic's Library, 35; powerless against Jackson, 37, 55, 56, 62, 63, 64, 76; defies South, 66; and Bank, 67, 70, 79; for Presidency, 67, 69; and Jackson's Bank Veto, 70; and Kentucky, 70, 71; and Compromise of 1833, 73, 74, 75; alliance with Calhoun, 74; debtor of Bank, 79, 80; fight to restore deposits, 81, 82, 84, 91; for distribution of surplus, 92, 93; attacking Van Buren, 96, 107; and Texas, 105, 127; Eastern tour, 108, 109; not nominated, 101, 112; program, 114; and Tyler, 115; retirement in 1841, 117; reconciled to Calhoun, 117; candidacy for Presidency, 117; Raleigh letter, 128; and Polk, 130, 145, 147, 152; on Mexican Treaty, 157, 167; snubbed, 171, 172; in Senate, 176; Compromise of 1850, 176; death, 181, 242.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 173.

Cobb, Howell, adviser of Buchanan, 247.

Colleges, in West, 34.

Colorado, 199.

Columbia Valley, immigration to, 127.

Confederacy, Southern organized, 271; agents to Europe, 276; enthusiasm, 276; preparations for war, 276; aristocracy united, 279; Richmond capital, 280; expects foreign intervention, 282; currency and finances, 286; need of European market, 286; regular government, 286; dissension, 287; bonds in Europe, 294; European recognition, imminent, 301; not ready for reunion, 309; debt and currency in 1864, 310; taxation, 310; internal dissension, 310; resistance to conscript laws, 311; area controlled in 1854, 313; credit ruined in Europe, 315; collapse, 324-28.

Congregational Church, in Massachusetts, 15; members in 1860, 220; and abolition, 222; Yale, a center, 222.

Connecticut, suffrage extended, Church and State separated, 14; population, 39; cotton and wool manufacturing, 42, 54.

Conscription, Federal and Confederate, 305; resistance to Confederate, 311; opposition to Federal, 317.

Constitution of the United States, amendments to limit term of Presidents, appointment of members of Congress, and powers of Supreme Court, 16; States and bills of credit, 99.

Cooper, General A. S., 281.

Cooper, James Fenimore, 53.

Cooper, Thomas, resignation, 142.

Cotton, and politics in South Carolina, 4; planters against tariff, 5, 66, 75; expansion and politics, 11; decline in price, 12; great wealth of planters, 13; in Southwest, 13; exports, 29, 36, 42, 313; New Orleans market, 36; manufacture in New England, 42, 46, 132, 133, 134, 137, 138; prices, 186, 194.

Courts, for vested interests, 51; national, power of, 51; county in old South, 38; planters in federal, 138.

Crawford, Thomas, sculptor, 225.

Crawford, William H., Jackson and Seminole affair, 2, 4, 8, 64.

Creeks. _See_ Indians.

Crittenden, John J., 171, 255, 273.

Crockett, David, 79.

Cuba, 198; purchase proposed, 232, 233; Ostend Manifesto, 234, 247.

Currency. _See_ Money, Paper money.

Cushing, Caleb, 50, 150; Attorney-General, 231.

Dallas, George M., for Vice-President, 130; elected, 131.

Dana, R. H., secession, 253.

Daniel, John M., opposed to Davis, 312.

Davis, Jefferson, Oregon, Texas, 132; expansionist, 150, 157, 176; retired after 1850, 181, 214; Secretary of War, 231; and Pacific Railroad, 233, 234, 236; for Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 239; Senate leader, 247; and Douglas, 254, 258; against secession, 269; President of Confederacy, 271; and Fort Sumter, 274; advice to plant food crops, 282; "second Washington," 282, 285; reëlected, 286; and J. E. Johnston, 287; trust in Lee, 298; unyielding, 309; opposition to, 312, 315, 322; recommends negro enlistment, 323; opposed by Congress, 323; impeachment threatened, 323; offers Europe emancipation, 323; last appeal to South, 324; escape to Danville, 327; captured and imprisoned, 328.

Declaration of Independence, and Jacksonians, 24; and New England, 24; in Democratic platform of 1840, 110; abolitionists and, 162, 262.

Delaware, for Adams, 14, 18.

Democracy, decline, 3; doomed in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 11; retarded by cotton expansion, 11; Whigs and Democrats, 109; flooded in South, 214; in New England, 215.

Democratic party, 67; defied by Clay, 66; first national convention, 68; and Van Buren, 104, 107, 109, 110; Baltimore Convention of 1844, 129; for Texas, 147, 161; convention of 1848, 172, 182; Franklin Pierce, 182; compromise a finality, 182; lose Northwest, 242; Southern, and pro-slavery, 243; Convention of 1856, 245; Buchanan and Breckinridge, 205; and Douglas, 257, 258; Charleston Convention of 1860, 260; split, 261; wins seven Republican States, 302; strong in North, 317; Convention of 1864, 321.

Derby Bank, of Connecticut, robs depositors, 44.

De Veaux, James, painter, 54.

Dew, Thomas R., on slavery, 118, 145.

Dickinson, Daniel S., Lincoln leader, 290.

District of Columbia, petitions on slavery in, 165; to abolish slave-trading, 178.

Dix, John A., 150, 157.

Doak, Samuel, 33.

Dobbin, James C., Secretary of Navy, 232.

Donaldson, Fort, Grant captures, 293.

Douglas, Stephen A., Oregon and Texas, 132; expansionists, 150, 172; and crisis of 1850, 176, 206; understood West, 202; land for railroads, 203; and Chicago, 203; ambitious, 205; wife, 214; slighted by Pierce, 232; Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 236; attacked, 240; Southern Whigs defend, 240; abused by Sumner, 245; for Buchanan, 246; Greeley suggests for President, 251; revolt on Kansas, 253; read out of Democratic party, 254; campaigning in Illinois, 254; popularity, 255; and Republicans, 255; debate with Lincoln, 256; Freeport doctrine, 256; reëlected, 257; and Democrats, 258; and Charleston Convention, 260; nominated by faction, 261; strength in Northwest, 264; against secession, 264; popular and electoral vote, 265; for peace, 273; supports Lincoln, 282, 289; death, 289.

Douglass, Frederick, ex-slave and abolitionist, 166.

Draper and Moss, photographers, 224.

Dred Scott decision, 247, 257.

Duane, William J., Secretary of the Treasury, 78; dismissed, 79.

East, 4; and democracy, 37, 39; emigration to West, 40; population, 40, 47, 185; lands, 41; product and return on capital, 42; factory life, 43; capitalists, 44, 46, 47, 48, 54; banks and circulation, 45, 46; factories in, 47; clergy and lawyers, 50; judges for property interests, 51; life in, being reconstructed, 54, 55; for protection, 59, 60; and public land questions, 61; antagonistic to South, 61; and West, 61; defeats Benton's land program, 65; and Clay, 67; Jackson and Bank, 69; and Union, 75; distrusts Van Buren, 96; and panic of 1837, 102, 108, 130, 161; and Texas, 167; cities of, for Compromise of 1850, 181; foreign element in, 185; population in 1830, in 1850, in 1860, 185; industrial area, 187; shipping tonnage, 187; capital concentrated in, 188; capital and income, 194; trade with West and South, 205; religious life, 218; school children, 223; college students, 224; and Northwest, 247, 263; motives of, in the Civil War, 289; for emancipation, 304; radicals of, hostile to Lincoln, 317; in control after war, 328.

Eaton, John H., Secretary of War, 58; wife and Washington Society, 59, 64.

Education, in United States, 1850-60, 213.

Eleventh Amendment, and repudiation of state debts, 106.

Emancipation Proclamation, promised, 302; opinion on, divided, 304; East for, West against, 304.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 52, 226; on John Brown, 259.

England, Oregon, 25, 27, 122, 152; United States and West Indian trade, 84; mediates between France and United States, 87; capital for United States, 99, 100; call for payment, 101; Mexico and Lower California, 122; strained relations with United States, 122; the Webster-Ashburton treaty, 123; slave trade and right of search, 123; Northwestern boundary, 124; Oregon, 124, 132, 147, 149; free-trade movement, 151; Oregon trade, 153; compensated owners for emancipation of slaves, 164; Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 173, 205; possibility of intervention by, in Civil War, 314.

English, in United States, 185; attitude toward Confederacy, 314.

Episcopalians, and slavery, 145, 216, 240.

Erie Canal, exports of grain, 29, 32, 35, 46, 90, 97; and European capital, 99.

Erie Railroad, 192.

Everett, Edward, 50; Minister to England, 126; Massachusetts spokesman, 184; becomes Democrat, 246; for Vice-President, 261.

Exports, cotton and other, 12; cotton from Confederacy, 313.

Factory system, introduced, 43; long hours and poor pay, 219.

Fair Oaks, battle of, 296.

Farm laborers, 210.

Farm life, 211; methods, 211.

Federalists, in South Carolina, 5; of New York and Pennsylvania, 14; shipping interests, 41.

Fillmore, Millard, President, 180; Know-Nothing candidate, 243; popular vote, 243.

Florida, 120; secession of, 271, 313.

Floyd, John, 70.

Floyd, John B., dismissed from army, 312.

Food, of Americans in 1860, 208.

Foot, Samuel A., 30; resolution on public lands, 60.

Foote, Commodore, on Mississippi River, 293.

Foote, Henry S., for "all of Mexico," 158; Compromise of 1850, 178.

Forbes, John M., railroad builder, 192.

Force Bill, 73, 77.

Forsyth, John, Jackson leader in the Senate, 82.

France, claims against, 85; threatens war, 86; and tariff, 151, 201; and South, 315; and Mexico, 315.

Fredericksburg, battle of, 303; and English intervention, 314.

Free negroes, in South, 138.

Freeport doctrine, 256.

Free-Soil party, 173; supports Pierce, 182, 184, 241.

Frémont, John C., in Mexican War, 154; Senator, 175; for President, 246; commander at St. Louis, 284; removed from command, 290, 299; for President, 320.

Friends. _See_ Quakers.

Fugitive Slave Law, strengthened in 1850, 178; opposition to, 184; nullified by Northern States, 252.

Fuller, Margaret, 226.

Fur trade, St. Louis a center, 35; American Fur Company, 35.

Gadsden, James, United States agent to Mexico, 232.

Gallatin, Albert, turned against Bank, 83.

Garrison, William Lloyd, abolitionist, 161; _Liberator_, 161; abolition societies, 162; for unconditional abolition, 164.

Georgia, 3; university of, 7; trouble over Indians, 7, 8, 21, 72, 87; immigration to, 13, 21, 28; Cherokee Nation against, 88, 121; illiterates, 213; convicts, 213; Know-Nothings defeated in, 243; secession of, 271; Union areas, 279; distrusted by Confederacy, 309; conscript laws annulled, 312, 323.

Germans, immigration to Mississippi Valley, 91; elect Lincoln, 264.

Germany, and tariff, 151.

Giddings, J. R., anti-slavery leader, 163, 262.

Gilmore, Thomas W., 121, 132.

Gladstone, W. E., favors South, 314.

Graft, in Van Buren's administration, 96.

Grain, exported by West, 29, 35; machinery invented, 199; railroads and, 199.

Grant, U. S., campaign in Tennessee, 293; wins battle of Shiloh, 294; made Halleck famous, 300; blocked in Mississippi, 303; commander in East, 316; Wilderness campaign, 317; failure and criticism of, 318; crosses the James, 318; invests Petersburg, 318, 326; liberal terms to Lee, 327.

Great Britain, and American shipping, 187.

Greeley, Horace, 171; proposes Douglas for President, 251; and Chicago Convention, 262, 263; against Lincoln, 320; supports Lincoln, 322.

Green, Duff, editor of the _Telegraph_, 17; attacks Adams, 17.

Greenbacks, issued, 292, 293; unpopular, 304; more issued, 305.

Grimes, J. W., 241.

Grimké, the Misses, abolitionists, 166.

Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Treaty of, 174.

Gulf States, immigration to, 13; value of exports, 29, 141; Union areas, 278.

Guthrie, James, Secretary of the Treasury, 232.

_Habeas corpus_, writ of, suspended, 304.

Halleck, General H. W., Grant makes famous, 300; command in East, 300.

Hamilton, Alexander, 44.

Hamilton, James, 71.

Hammond, James H., on slavery, 146.

Hampton, Wade, 214.

Hannegan, and Calhoun, 120; for taking Canada, 158.

Harper's Ferry, John Brown, 259, 301.

_Harper's Magazine_, 228.

Harris, Townsend, consul to Japan, 235.

Harrison, William Henry, Whig candidate, 93, 110; elected, 111; and Clay, 114; death, 115.

Hart, Joel T., sculptor, 54.

Harvard, Unitarian center, 52; confers degree of LL.D. on Jackson, 58; Southern students at, 224.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 182; struggling, 226.

Hayne, Paul Hamilton, 227.

Hayne, Robert Y., 5, 6, 30, 48, 52; debate with Webster, 61, 63, 64; nullification, 71.

Henry, Fort, Grant captures, 293.

Hill, General A. P., 299.

Hill, General D. H., 299; loses orders, 301.

Hodge, Dr. Charles, president of Princeton, 222.

Hoe, Richard M., inventor, 224.

Holden, W. W., leads peace movement, 312.

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 226.

Homesteads, free, in Republican platform, 262.

Hood, General John B., defeated by Sherman, 319; to Nashville, 319.

Hooker, General Joseph, given command of the Army of the Potomac, 303; loses at Chancellorsville, 305.

Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 21.

Houston, Samuel, in Texas, 120; Governor of Texas, 126.

Howe, Elias, inventor of sewing machine, 224.

Hunter, R. M. T., 324.

Hunt, William Morris, 225.

Illinois, 3; for Jackson, 22; population, 28, 87, 89, 90; internal improvements, 90; Germans in, 91; capital from New York and London, 91; debt and income, 98; for Van Buren, 111, 113; Oregon and Texas, 122, 131; Indians removed, 199, 201, 205; convicts in 1860, 213; educational reform, 223; for opening Nebraska, 238; North for Republicans, 241; for Buchanan, 246, 262, 263; Democratic, 302.

Illinois Central Railroad, built, 204.

Immigration, 40, 212.

Independent Treasury, proposed, 103; contested, 104; established, 104, 107, 108, 109; law repealed, 115; reënacted, 149.

Indian Territory, 89.

Indiana, for Jackson, 22; population, 90; internal improvements, 90; capital from New York and London, 91, 113; Indians removed, 199, 201; illiterates, 213; educational reform, 223; for opening Nebraska, 238; North for Republicans, 241; for Buchanan, 246, 262; Democratic, 302.

Indians, Creeks, 1, 2, 26; removal desired, 29; and Georgia, 72; removal by Jackson, 87, 88; Cherokee Nation against Georgia, 88; Seminole War, 104.

Ingham, Samuel D., 14, 17; Secretary of the Treasury, 58.

Internal improvements, West for, 28, 59; Carey and Lea pamphlets, 53, 55; Maysville veto, 63, 65; and Whigs, 110, 130; extending slavery, 141, 150, 152; and Wilmot Proviso, 170.

Inventions, 199, 212, 224.

Iowa, 87, 89, 90, 106; made State, 198; Indians removed, 199, 201, 205; for opening Nebraska, 238, 264.

Irish, in United States, 185.

Irving, Washington, 52.

Jackson, Andrew, early life, 1; candidate for President, 2, 4; tariff views, 6; and Calhoun, 6; and Indians, 8, 18; and North Carolina, 9; and Virginia, 11, 14; campaign managers, 16, 17, 18; skillful politician, 18; inauguration, 20, 21; supplants Clay in West, 21, 22; planters distrust, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28; duelist, 32; "Old Hickory," 36, 37; Western opposition, 37; "King Andrew I," 37; Eastern distrust, 39; first Cabinet, 56, 58; degree of LL.D. from Harvard, 58; party divided, 58, 59; Cabinets, 58; "Kitchen Cabinet," 58; removals by, 58; appointments by, 58, 59; Eaton affair, 59; and tariff, 59; and Foot Resolution, 60; and Bank, 60, 65, 66, 67, 68, 77, 80; for second term, 62; Van Buren and Calhoun, 62; Union toast, 62; Maysville veto, 63; break with Calhoun, 64; Cabinet changed, 64; platform unfulfilled, 65; and South Carolina, 69, 71, 72, 73; Bank veto, 69; campaign of 1832, 70, 71, 72; Georgia and the Indians, 72; Nullification Proclamation and Force Bill, 73; Verplanck Tariff Bill, 73; messages, 76; defeated on tariff, 79; Bank war on, 80; Bank defeated, 82, 84; diplomatic relations, West Indian trade, 84; French spoliation claims, 85; Senate opposition, 86; House support, 86; war threatened, 86; peaceful settlement, 87; removal of Indians, 87, 89, 90; successes, 91, 92; Distribution Bill vetoed, 92; deposit with States, 92; railroads, 92; Specie Circular, 92; revolts against, 92, 93; triumphant retirement, 94; and Van Buren, 96, 97, 98, 100, 103; and Texas, 105, 107, 108, 109, 111; repudiated in 1840, 112, 117, 120, 127, 144; and abolition mail, 165, 187, 242, 265; denounces secession, 268.

Jackson, Thomas J. ("Stonewall"), at Bull Run, 285; Valley campaign, 296; reinforces Lee, 297; failures in Peninsula campaign, 297, 299; sent against Pope, 299; Cedar Mountain, 299, 301; death, 305.

Japan, trade relations with, 235.

Jay Treaty, 84.

Jefferson, Thomas, Jackson-like, 3, 36; sale of Monticello, 13, 19, 23, 50, 54, 62, 142, 167; and public education, 223; Lincoln-like, 265.

Jeffersonian party, getting aristocratic, 3, 5, 17, 30, 109, 167.

Johnson, Andrew, for Vice-President, 320.

Johnson, Richard M., rival of Clay, 22.

Johnston, Albert Sidney, made general, 276; battle of Shiloh, 293; killed, 294.

Johnston, Joseph E., made general, 276, 281; at Bull Run, 285; quarrel with Davis, 287; Peninsula campaign, 297; wounded, 296; in Georgia, 318, 319; removed from command, 319; restored to command, 325; surrenders to Sherman, 327.

Jones, Commodore, 125.

Judd, Norman B., Republican leader, 255.

Kansas, 89, 199; organized as Territory, 241; popular sovereignty, 243; Topeka Convention, 244; two governments, 244; deadlock in Congress over, 244; war in, 248; Walker, Governor, 249; Lecompton Constitution, 249.

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 172, 198, 235, 236; and Pacific Railway 238; provisions, 239; angry debate on, 240; passed, 240; resulting campaign, 241.

Kearny, Colonel S. W., campaign in New Mexico, 154.

Kendall, Amos, 58, 62.

Kennedy, John P., 53.

Kenner, Duncan F., Confederate agent to Europe, 323.

Kent, Chancellor, against universal suffrage, 14, 51.

Kentucky, 13; and Clay, 15, 21, 22; and R. M. Johnson, 22; population, 28, 32; and Jackson, 37, 40, 63, 70; Germans in, 91; "slavery a blessing," 119, 121; live stock to South, 141; Presbyterians in, 143; and slavery, 161; for Scott, 182; and Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 238, 246; secession of, prevented, 275; occupied by Federals, 293; against emancipation, 301; Republican party in 1862, 302; held by Federals, 313.

Know-Nothing party, 242; defeated in Virginia and Georgia, 243; in 1856, 243, 261, 264.

Labor unions, beginning, 209.

Laborers, conditions poor, 209.

Larkin, Thomas O., seizure of California, 154.

Lawyers, support capitalists, 50, 51; in South, allied with planters, 139.

Lecompton Constitution, of Kansas, 249.

Lee, Robert E., 214, 259; made general, 276; drills Virginia troops, 281; expected success, 282; home seized, 283; sent to West Virginia, 286; loses West Virginia, 296; in chief command, 296; Peninsula command, 297; loses at Mechanicsville, 297; wins at Gaines's Mills, 297; pursues McClellan, 297; loses at Malvern Hill, 297, 298; second Bull Run, 300; into Maryland, 300, 301; Antietam, 302; retires into Virginia, 302; wins at Fredericksburg, 303; wins at Chancellorsville, 305; second invasion of North, 305; Gettysburg, 306; retreat to Virginia, 307; uncompromising, 309; urges conscription, 311, 312; checks Grant, 318; Grant outwits, 318; facing Grant at Petersburg, 323; refuses dictatorship, 324; army in want, 325; odds against, 326; retreat to west, 326; surrender, 327.

Legaré, Hugh S., Secretary of State, 126.

Lewis, William B., 58, 62, 64.

Lexington, Kentucky, 34; Mechanics' Library, 35, 63.

_Liberator_, abolition weekly, 162.

Liberty party, nominates Van Buren, 173.

Lincoln, Abraham, 32, 36; in Republican party, 241, 242; against Douglas, 255; debate with Douglas, 256; "house-divided-against-itself," 256; Presidential timber, 257; Chicago Convention of 1860, 261; nominated for President, 263; character, 263, 265; election of, and South, 268; conciliatory, 269; inaugural, 272; yields to radicals, 273; saves Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, 275; calls for volunteers, 282; war to preserve Union, 289; Douglas supports, 289; calls for more men, 290, 320; and finance, 292; dark hours, 300; promises emancipation, 302; arbitrary arrests, 304; opposition to, 304, 316; hope in Grant, 317; nominated for President by National Unionists, 320; asked to withdraw, 321; appoints day of thanksgiving, 321; strongly supported, 322, 324.

Literature, flower of American culture, 226.

Live stock, exported by West, 29; to cotton belt, 141.

Liverpool, capital of, invested in United States, 100, 205.

Livingston, Edward, Secretary of State, 65; Minister to France, 78; for Bank, 78; and French claims, 85.

Loco-focos, 108.

London, capital loaned to West, 91; in United States, 100, 205.

Longfellow, Henry W., 226.

Longstreet, A. B., 227.

Longstreet, General James, 299, 301; sent to Bragg, 307.

Lopez, Narcisco, 198.

Louisiana, 8; in cotton belt, 12, 86; "slavery a blessing," 119; secession of, 271.

Lovejoy, Elijah P., anti-slavery leader, 164; murdered, 166.

Lowell, James Russell, 227.

Lowndes, William, 5.

Macon, Nathaniel, in Senate, 16.

McClellan, George B., at Cincinnati, 283; drilling army, 293; Peninsula campaign, 296; failure, 298; army withdrawn, 299; removed from command, 299; popular with army, 300; restored to command, 301; Antietam, 302; again removed, 303; mentioned for President, 317; nominated by Democrats, 321.

McClelland, Robert, Secretary of the Interior, 232.

McCormick, Cyrus, 199, 202.

McCreary, James, 34.

McDowell, General Irvin, commanding in Virginia, 283; Bull Run, 285, 299.

McDuffie, George, 6; for Bank, 68; debtor of Bank, 79, 82.

McLane, Louis, Secretary of the Treasury, 65; Secretary of State, 78; for Bank, 78.

McLeod, Alexander, trial in New York, 123.

Madison, James, in Virginia Convention of 1829, 10.

Maine, 14; population, 39, 41, 48; Democratic, 55, 105; northeastern boundary settled, 124; "Aroostook War," 124, 187, 264.

Malvern Hill, battle of, 298.

Manassas, battles of. _See_ Bull Run.

Mann, Horace, and public schools, 223.

Manufacturing, Cincinnati a center, 35; growth in East, 1820-30, 41; cotton and woolen, 42; product and return on capital, 42; factory life, 43; men in control, 47; industrial area, 47, 49; transition from agriculture, 50; political power, 54, 55; eastern area, 187, 205.

Marcy, William L., in Polk's Cabinet, 147; Secretary of State, 231, 234.

Marshall, John, 10, 22, 32, 51, 99.

Marshall, Thomas, 33.

Maryland, 14, 18, 23, 40, 50; banking laws, 106, 133; internal improvements, 133; and slavery, 161; and Know-Nothings, 243, 265; secession prevented, 275; Lee in, 300; against emancipation, 301.

Mason, James M., 150, 215; commissioner to Europe, 286, 314.

Mason, John Y., in Polk's Cabinet, 149, 215; Minister to France, 234; Ostend Manifesto, 235.

Massachusetts, 3; conservative, 15; population, 39; cotton and wool manufacture, 42; bank capital and circulation, 45; tax valuation, 46; particularism and free trade to nationalism and protection, 54; banking laws, 106; for Scott, 182, 184; manufacturing, 187; shipping, 187; illiterates, 213; convicts, 213; and Sumner, 245; nullifies Fugitive Slave Law, 252.

Matamoras, battle of, 154.

Maysville Bill, 63, 64, 67.

Meade, George Gordon, given command of the Army of the Potomac, 306; wins at Gettysburg, 306.

Mechanics' Library of Lexington, Ky., fostered by Clay, 35.

Mechanicsville, battle of, 297.

Medill, Joseph, Republican leader, 255.

Methodists, in West, 33; in South, 143; and slavery, 143, 144, 161, 165, 221; increase of membership, 145; in South, 218; strength of clergy, 220; members, 222; educational institutions, 222, 223.

Mexican War, 135, 154.

Mexico, West and, 25, 27; and England, 122, 126, 132, 135; Texas boundary, 148; Slidell's mission to, 153; war with, 154; desire for all, 157, 161, 247.

Michigan, 22, 87; population, 90; Dutch repudiated, 106; Oregon and Texas, 132; made State, 198; Indians removed, 199; Republican party organized, 241.

Michigan Central Railroad, 192.

Middle States, 6, 13, 14; and Jackson, 17, 18, 22; labor scarce in, 30, 40; banks, 45; literature, 52, 53, 54, 55, 68, 74, 83, 84, 93; poor wheat crop, 101; Texas and Oregon, 127; abolition societies in, 162.

Minnesota, 87, 89; made State, 198; Indians removed, 199.

Mississippi, and Indians, 8, 87; and Jackson, 72; population, 89, 90; debt and income, 98; internal improvements, 98; debts of, repudiated, 106; "slavery a blessing," 119; Van Buren and Texas, 128; California and slavery, 175; secession of, 271, 313.

Mississippi River, 87; canal feeders, 90; Commodore Foote on, 293; held by Federals, 307.

Mississippi Valley, 2, 11, 21; for Texas and Oregon, 25; value of exports, 29, 36; immigration to, 90; Germans in, 91; cotton belt, 135, 198; growth and power, 199.

Missouri, and Clay, 21, 22; the bank, tariff, and internal improvements, 22; horse-racing, 32, 37, 40; Germans in, 91; for Van Buren, 111; emigration from, to Oregon, 127, 131; Pacific Railroad, 238; and Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 238; and Kansas, 245, 265; secession of, prevented, 275; held by Federals, 313.

Missouri Compromise, repealed, 239; Dred Scott decision, 247.

Missouri Valley, in plantation belt, 138.

Mobile, Ala., blockade-running from, 313; taken by Farragut, 321.

Mobile and Ohio Railroad, 204.

Monroe, James, in Virginia Convention of 1829, 10, 28, 89, 105.

Monroe Doctrine, France and Mexico and, 315.

Monterey, battle of, 154.

Monticello, sale of, 13.

Mormons, 176.

Morse, S. F. B., 224.

Motley, John L., 215, 228.

Murfreesboro, battle of, 295.

Napoleon III, favors South, 314, 316.

Nashville, Tenn., Federals capture, 293.

Nat Turner, slave insurrection, 118.

National Bank, 114; Tyler's views, 115; bills vetoed, 116, 130.

National debt, paid, 92.

National road, 90.

Nebraska, 199; organized as Territory, 241.

New England, for Adams, 14, 18; suffrage and Democracy in, 15, 23, 24, 28; hostile to West, 29, 39; population, 39, 40; growth of manufactures, 41; banks, 45; trade with South, 46; literature, 52, 53, 54; painting and sculpture, 54; industrial control, 55, 56; and tariff, 66, 67; and South Carolina, 72, 84; against Jackson, 93; for Harrison and Tyler, 111, 112, 125, 126; Oregon and Texas, 131, 140, 149; abolition societies, 163; against Fugitive Slave Law, 184; aristocratic life, 215; decline of Puritanism in, 216, 222; and Buchanan, 246; for nullification and secession, 252, 253; for Seward, 257; threats of secession, 268, 269; Confederate raids into, 323.

New Hampshire, 14; population, 39.

New Jersey, 14, 18, 302.

New Mexico, 152, 154; Territory of, organized, 176, 179.

New Orleans, battle of, 2, 21, 32; commerce, 35, 36; and Jackson, 37; failures, 101; sub-treasury at, 151, 193; winter resort, 214; held by Federals, 213.

New York, constitutional reform, 14; for Jackson, 14, 15, 18, 71; Western element, 28, 32, 39; population, 40; manufacturing, 42; banking capital and circulation, 42, 83; banking laws, 105, 149; manufacturing, 187; shipping, 187, 195, 200; Democratic, 302; panic at Lee's invasion, 305.

New York Central Railroad, 192.

New York City, manufacturing, 41; financial center, 45; land value, 46, 48; literary seat, 52; newspaper for Bank, 79; high interest, 83, 84; capital to West, 91, 96; failures, 101; for Walker program, 129; sub-treasury at, 151, 187; financial center, 189, 193, 194, 195, 202, 205, 209, 222; and Buchanan, 246, 305; Confederates try to burn, 323.

New York _Evening Post_, 53; for "all of Mexico," 156.

New York _Times_, friendly to Confederacy, 272.

New York _Tribune_, friendly to Confederacy, 272.

Nicholson letters, of Cass, 172.

Norfolk, Va., held by Federals, 313.

North, 165, 251, 259; devotion to Union, 269; opposed to war, 272; united for Union, 283; hatred of South, 284; danger of break-up, 289; prosperous, 292; divided counsels, 301; ready for reunion, 309; wins political control, 328; cost of war, 328.

_North American Review_, 52, 53.

North Carolina, declares tariff unconstitutional, 7, 8; East and West compromise, 8; unit for Jackson, 9, 12, 14, 23, 28; dread of West, 30, and nullification, 72; "slavery a blessing," 119, 121; tobacco belt, 132; cotton belt, 135, 140, 141; Presbyterians in, 143; anti-slavery, 161; and Compromise of 1850, 178, 264; Union areas, 278; resistance to conscription, 311; peace movement in, 312; conscript laws annulled by, 312, 313; opposition to Davis, 323; fears Sherman, 325.

Northwest, for Jackson, 22; radical, 23, 40; outstripping Southwest, 121; demand for Oregon, 122, 126, 140; internal improvements, 152; abolition societies, 163; and Polk, 169; Southern alliance broken, 173; expansion, 174, 181; foreign element, 185; population, 185; feared by South, 198; grain and meat, 199; capital, income, debts, 202; and South, 203; and Douglas, 203; land for railroads, 203; expansion and ambition, 204; and slavery, 221; school children, 223; college students, 224; and Pierce, 231; Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 236; clash with South, 236; Pacific Railroad, 238; and East, 242, 263; Lincoln and Douglas, 264; threatened secession, 269; supporting Lincoln, 282; against abolitionists, 301; hostile to Lincoln, 317.

Nova Scotia, main boundary, 124.

Nueces River, south bank seized, 148.

Nullification, formulated by Calhoun, 6; Hayne-Webster debate, 61; imminent in South Carolina, 66, 71; ended in South Carolina, 75.

Ogden, William B., 202.

Ohio, 15; canals, 35; and Jackson 37; migration to, 39; trade to New York, 46, 55, 71; internal improvements, 90; Germans in, 91, 119; Oregon and Texas, 122, 162; and Republicans, 241; Democratic, 302.

Ohio Valley, 46, 56; in plantation belt, 138.

Oklahoma, 89, 199.

Omnibus Bill, 180.

Oregon, and West, 25, 36; and Van Buren, 89; demand for, 122; boundary, 124, 125; Walker letter, 129; Democrats and, 129, 131, 152; Treaty, 153; and Wilmot Proviso, 170; free States, 174, 199.

Ostend Manifesto, 235.

Pacific Railroad, 204, 232, 263.

Palmer, B.M., secession sermon, 221, 278.

Panama Railroad, 192.

Panic of 1837, causes, 97, 102.

Parker, Theodore, heretical, 218.

Parson, Theophilus, great lawyer, 51.

Peace congress, 272.

Peck, John M., library, 35.

Pendleton, G.H., Democratic leader, 321.

Peninsula campaign, 296.

Pennsylvania, 3; and Calhoun, 5; protectionism, 5, 14, 17, 18; Western element, 28, 39, 40; manufacturing in, 42; western, 55, 71, 83, 98; banks, 98, 151; manufacturing, 187; shipping, 187, 201; illiterates, 213, 246; Democratic, 302; panic in, at Lee's invasion, 305.

Pennsylvania Railroad, 192.

Perry, Commodore, opening Japan, 235.

Philadelphia, manufacturing at, 41; financial center, 45, 46, 48; and Bank, 79; failures, 101; mint at, 151, 188, 193, 209, 222, 306.

Phillips, Wendell, abolition leader, 166.

Pierce, Franklin, for President, 182; inauguration, 184, 206; and Northwest, 231; program, 232; Pacific Railroad, 233; Cuba, 233; commercial expansion, 235; Eastern opposition, 235, 239.

Plantation, life in Old South, 137, 138; spread of system, 193.

Planters, rulers of South, 138; number, 139; and professional men, 139.

Poe, Edgar Allan, 226.

Poindexter, George, in Senate, 16; duelist, 32.

Polk, James K., 53; Speaker of House, 130; for President, 130; election and intentions, 131, 135, 140, 145; and Oregon, 149, 153; and Tariff of 1846, 151; vetoes Internal Improvements Bill, 152; sends Slidell to Mexico, 153, 155; and Mexican Treaty, 157; death, 160, 161; denounced by Sumner, 168; and Wilmot Proviso, 170; and Panama Canal, 174; and California, 175; recommendations, 232.

Pope, General John, given army, 299; battle of Cedar Mountain, 299; second battle of Bull Run, 300.

Popular sovereignty, 236, 255.

Population, of cotton belt, 12; of United States, 28, 40, 184; of West, 28, 40; of New England, 39; of New York, 40; of East, 40; of South, 40; foreign elements, 185.

Powers, Hiram, sculptor, 225.

Prentiss, Sargent, 90.

Presbyterians, in West, 33; in South, 142, 218; and slavery, 143, 145, 160; strong clergy, 220; members in 1860, 220; Princeton a center, 222.

Prescott, William H., 228.

President, one term demanded, 16; and Supreme Court, 51, 55.

Presidential campaign, of 1828, 3, 18, 19; of 1832, 69, 70; of 1836, 92; of 1840, 110; of 1844, 127; of 1848, 170; of 1852, 182; of 1856, 245; of 1860, 261.

Preston, Ballard, 171.

Preston, William C., 93.

Princeton College, Presbyterian center, 232; Southerners at, 224.

Pryor, General Roger A., and Fort Sumter, 275.

Public debt of United States, paid, 99.

Public education, in West, 34; in South, 142.

Public lands, 25, 26; squatters, 27; Benton and, 27; for schools, 34; Foot Resolution, 60; Preëmption Bill, 60, 89, 108; sales, 91, 97; Specie Circular, 92; distribution of proceeds, 114, 116; for railroads, 203.

Quakers, 22.

Quitman, John A., 91; filibustering, 198.

Railroads, speculation in West, 92; and Jackson, 92; building, 192; opening grain region, 199; of South breaking down, 310, 323.

Randolph, John, 10, 11, 15, 16, 30, 132.

Rankin, John, anti-slavery worker, 119, 161.

Reeder, Andrew, Governor of Kansas, 243.

Religion, in _ante-bellum_ South, 143; American, of 1860, 216.

Republican party, in Wisconsin and Michigan, 241, 242; Northern and anti-slavery, 243; platform, 246; and Frémont, 246, 247, 251; and Douglas, 255; and Seward, 257; Chicago Convention, 261, 262; conciliatory, 270; loses seven States, 302.

Repudiation of state debts, 106; effect on Confederacy, 316.

Revenue, of United States, exceeding expenses, 92; surplus distribution vetoed, 92; surplus deposited with States, 92; defaulters, 96, 97, 98, 103.

Rhett, Robert Barnwell, 6, 15; threatening secession, 117, 132, 150, 152; retired after 1850, 181; for secession, 264, 270; opposed to Davis, 312, 324.

Rhode Island, 15.

Rice, 5, 12, 132.

Rice, Nathan L., slavery divine, 221.

Richmond, Va., 10; and Bank, 79; wheat market, 133; Confederate capital, 280; social life, 280; evacuated, 326.

Rio Grande, boundary proposed, 130, 148, 194.

Ritchie, Thomas, and Walker, 129; for Compromise of 1850, 178.

Rives, William C., supporting Tyler, 116, 324.

Robinson, Charles, anti-slavery leader, 244.

Rosecrans, General W. S., 295; battle of Murfreesboro, 295, 303.

Ross, John, chief of Cherokees, 88.

Rush, Richard, candidate for Vice-President, 17.

St. Louis, Mo., Mercantile Library, 35; fur trade, 35; in cotton belt, 135, 193; Pacific Railroad, 235.

Santa Anna, 154.

Sargent, John, candidate for Vice-President, 67.

Savannah, Ga., blockade-running from, 313; captured by Sherman, 324.

Scammon, John Y., 202.

Schurz, Carl, and Lincoln's election, 264.

Scott, General Winfield, sent to Mexico, 155; captures Vera Cruz, 155; Cerro Gordo, 156; Churubusco, 156; Molino del Rey, 156; Chapultepec, 156; Mexico City, captured, 156; Whig candidate for President, 181; blunders, 181; defeat, 182, 283.

Secession, final remedy, 6; Calhoun and, 145; over Texas question, 167; over California, 176; of South, contemplated, 198; threatened in 1856, 246; of Wisconsin threatened, 252; much talked of, 253; historical background, 268, 270.

Sectionalism, in South Carolina, 5; in North Carolina, 8; in Virginia, 10, 145; checked, 171, 205, 231; renewed, 235; strong, 265.

Seminole War, 2; and Jackson, 64.

Seward, William H., anti-slavery Whig, 164; for Wilmot Proviso, 171; adviser to Taylor, 175, 179, 180, 184, 214; attacks Douglas, 240, 242, 243; and Kansas, 245; for popular sovereignty, 251, 255, 257; Chicago Convention, 261, 262; defeated, 263; conciliatory, 269, 271; for peace, 273; and arbitrary arrests, 304; opposes emancipation, 304, 315; meets Confederate commissioners, 324.

Seymour, Horatio, Democratic leader, 321.

Sheridan, General Philip, wins at Winchester, 322; lays waste Shenandoah Valley, 322, 326.

Sherman, General W. T., 303; in Georgia, 318; forces Johnston back, 319; defeats Hood and captures Atlanta, 319; march to sea, 322, 323; captures Savannah, 324, 325; Johnston surrenders to, 327.

Shiloh, battle of, 293.

Ship subsidies, 205, 232, 235.

Shipping, manufacturing gaining in East, 41, 47; merchants appeal to Hayne, 48; increase, 1850-60, 205.

Simms, William Gilmore, 225.

Slave-owners, 138; number, 139.

Slave trade, negotiations with England, 123; Creole affair, 124; agitation for reopening, 198; active, 252; forbidden by Confederacy, 271.

Slavery, in South Carolina, 4; in North Carolina, 9; in Virginia, 10, 13, 30, 118; value of slaves, 42; product, 42; in Democratic platform, 110; Dew on, 118; "a blessing," 118, 119; and Northern business, 119, 134; plantation life, 136, 210; profitable unit, 137; in Southwest, 140; and the churches, 144; early Southern opposition, 161; abolition and, 163; in Territories, 174; and California, 175; Dred Scott decision, 248; Lincoln-Douglas debates, 256; Freeport doctrine, 256; popular sovereignty, 236, 255, 256; and Republicans, 262; guaranteed by Confederacy, 271.

Slaves, conditions of life, 210; faithful during war, 277; emancipation to be proclaimed, 302; Davis offers emancipation of, in effort to secure European recognition of Confederacy, 323; offered freedom to fight, 325.

Slidell, John, 91; mission to Mexico, 153, 215, 258; commissioner to Europe, 285; in France, 315.

Sloat, Commodore John D., seizes California, 154.

Smith, Gerrit, 166.

Sons of Liberty, 321, 323.

Soule, Bishop, 34.

Soulé, Pierre, commissioner to Spain, 233; recalled, 234; Ostend Manifesto, 234.

South, 4, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13; against Adams, 13; for Jackson, 17, 18, 23; planters not democratic, 24; alliance with West, 30, 40, 109, 129, 131; uneasy about slavery, 37; population, 40, 41, 42; exports, 42; banks and circulation, 45; trade with New England, and New York, 46; cotton, slaves, land, 47, 48; judges for property interests, 51, 55, 58; for free trade, 59; and the Bank, 60, 61, 69, 80; control or secession, 62; and protection, 68, 69, 70; and nullification, 72; market for East, 75; and Union, 75; removal of Indians, 87; for Van Buren, 93; land office defaulters, 96, 101, 115, 117, 118, 119; for Texas, 120; North outstripping, 121, 124; and Texas, 126; Oregon and Texas, 129; Walker letter, 129; California, Oregon, and Texas, 132; _ante-bellum_, and civilization, 132, 133, 135; plantation life in, 136, 138, 139, 140, 141; rural life, 142; court days, 142; few paupers and insane, 142, 143, 145, 160, 161; abolitionists mistrust, 163, 164; and abolition agitation, 165; Texas or secession, 167; for Cass, 172; break with Northwest, 173; desperate situation, 174; proposed conventions, 176, 178; accepts compromise, 181; population, 185; railroad building, 189; plantation system, 193, 194, 195; commercial conventions, 195; Cuba, Nicaragua, slave trade, 198; contemplating secession, 198, 203; trade with North, 205, 213; aristocratic life, 213; Calvinistic religion, 218; public education, 223; college students, 224, 234; clash with Northwest, 236, 240; becoming solid, 243, 246; against Douglas, 257; John Brown raid, 259; preparing for secession, 264; and Lincoln's election, 268, 269; war enthusiasm, 276, 277; Union areas, 278, 279, 280; confidence, 282; currency and finances, 286; not ready for reunion, 309; debt currency and taxation, 310; dissensions, 310, 311; cost of war to, 328.

South Carolina, 4; cotton and politics, 5; Calhoun and Jackson, 8, 11, 14, 19, 23, 28, 30; nationalism and protection to particularism and free trade, 54, 55, 60, 63, 65, 66, 68; ready to nullify, 70; nullification, 71, 72; Jackson's Proclamation and Force Bill, 73; repeal of nullification, 75, 77, 82; internal improvements and debt, 98; bank laws, 106; for Van Buren, 111; "slavery a blessing," 119; Calhoun and, 119; loses representatives, 121, 128, 131, 140, 141; Presbyterians, 143; and Wilmot Proviso, 171; California and slavery, 175; secession of, 269, 270; Union area, 278, 313; Sherman and, 325.

Southwest, radical, 23; newly rich, 31; and nullification, 72; river commerce, 90; cotton expansion, 90; growth, 121; and old South, 140.

Sparks, Rev. Jared, 73.

Specie Circular, 92; effect on business, 102; demand for repeal, 102, 103.

Squatter sovereignty, started by Cass, 171.

Stanton, Edwin M., Secretary of War, 299; arbitrary arrests, 304.

Steamers, on Great Lakes, 35; on the Mississippi, 35.

Stephens, Alexander H., for Taylor, 171; out of favor, 175; blaming anti-slavery, 176; defends Douglas, 240; Democrat, 243; Vice-President of Confederacy, 271; reëlected, 286; for reunion, 309; would impeach Davis, 323, 324, 325.

Stevens, Thaddeus, supports Lincoln, 322.

Story, Joseph, 15, 252.

Suffrage, 3; in North Carolina, 9; in Virginia, 10; in New York, 14; in Connecticut, 14; in Massachusetts, 15; in Rhode Island, 15.

Sugar, 12, 132, 194.

Sully, portrait painter, 54.

Sumner, Charles, for constitutional abolition, 168; hostile to Webster, 179, 184, 215; against Nebraska Bill, 240, 241, 242; "Crime-of-Kansas" speech, 245; assaulted by Brooks, 245, 253, 263; uncompromising, 273; for immediate emancipation, 301; denounces Lincoln, 316, 320; supports Lincoln, 322.

Sumter, Fort, 270, 272, 273; bombardment of, united North, 283.

Supreme Court, of United States, proposal to limit powers, 16, 50, 51, 55; of Georgia, Jackson and, 72; Cherokee Nation against Georgia, 88; changed, 99; Dred Scott decision, 247.

Surplus. _See_ Revenue.

Taney, Roger B., Attorney-General, 65; Secretary of the Treasury, 79.

Tariff, 5, 6, 7, 44, 51, 53, 55, 65, 66, 68, 69; Jackson and, 59; and South Carolina, 60, 62; nullification, 71; Verplanck Bill, 73; compromise of 1833, 74, 77; and Whigs, 110, 112, 173; and Clay, 114; law of 1842, 117, 130; of 1846, 150, 151; low, 1850, 60, 205, 268; and Confederacy, 271.

Taylor, Zachary sent across Nueces River, 148; ordered to the Rio Grande, 154; into Mexico, 154; Monterey, 154; suggested for Presidency, 155; Buena Vista, 155; nominated for President, 171; slave-owner, 171; in Presidential campaign, 172; courted by North and South, 174, 175; and California, 176; defies South, 176; and Clay, 176; beaten, 180; death, 180.

Tennessee, and Clay, 21, 22, 32, 40; and nullification, 72, 93; "slavery a blessing," 119, 121, 141; Presbyterians in, 143, 182; and Nebraska Bill, 238, 245; secession of, 275; Union areas, 279, 293, 311, 313.

Tennessee River, immigration to, 13, 161; Grant on, 293.

Texas, 16; American occupation, 25; desired by West, 24; and Van Buren, 89, 105, 106; applies for annexation, 104, 120; independent, 121, 125, 126; and England, 126, 127; Walker letter, 129, 130, 131, 132, 135; treaty of annexation rejected by Senate, 147; and election of 1845, 147; annexed, 147; disputed boundary, 148, 152; Slidell's mission, 153; secession over, 167; New Mexican boundary, 176; and Pacific Railroad, 233; secession of, 275.

Thompson, Jacob, Confederate agent Canada, 323.

Thompson, William Tappen, 227.

Timrod, Henry, 227.

Tobacco, 12, 35, 66, 75, 132, 186; staple, 194.

Toombs, Robert, 175; and Kansas question, 244.

Topeka Constitution, of Kansas, 250.

Transcendental Club, 52.

Transcendentalists, 226.

Treasury of United States, full, 186, 292.

Treasury notes, issued in 1877, 103.

Trist, Nicholas, envoy to Mexico 156, 157.

Trumbull, Lyman, 255.

Tyler, John, against Jackson, 93; for Vice-President, 110; elected, 111; succeeds Harrison, 115; and Clay, 115; vetoes Bank bills, 116; Cabinet resigns, 116, 121; Texas and Oregon, 125; Texas treaty, 130, 131, 147, 168.

Tucker, George, historian, 228.

Twain, Mark, 227.

_Uncle Tom's Cabin_, 184.

Union party, Bell and Everett, 261; for conciliation, 270.

Unitarians, 218; and abolition, 221.

University, of Indiana, Presbyterian, 223; of Michigan, Methodist Chaplain, 223; of North Carolina, Presbyterian, 223; of South Carolina, 143; of Virginia, 143; chaplain at, 223.

Upshur, Abel P., Secretary of State, 126; and Texas, 127; death, 127, 147.

Utah, in Compromise of 1850, 176.

Van Buren, Martin, "boss" of New York, 14; in Senate, 16, 17, 18, 58; in Jackson's favor, 62, 63; Calhoun rival, 64, 65; Minister to England, 68; for Vice-President, 68; and Jackson, 73, 83, 89; for President, 92; conservative, 94; spoils system, 96; difficulties, 97, 100; and panic of 1837, 102; and Independent Treasury, 103; and Texas, 104, 105, 107, 121, 127, 167; and opposition, 108; and Democrats, 109; blamed for panic, 110; and campaign of 1840, 111, 114, 120; and Walker, 129; not renominated, 130, 147; against Cass, 172; Free-Soil candidate, 173.

Vance, Zebulon B., opposed to Davis, 312.

Vanderbilt, Commodore, steamboat and railroad lines, 192.

Vermont, for Scott, 182.

Verplanck Tariff Bill, Jackson's measure, 73.

Vicksburg, 293.

Virginia, 3, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14; for Jackson, 18, 23, 28, 30; depression, 39; and nullification, 46, 50, 55, 67, 72; embassy from, to South Carolina, 75; internal improvements and debt, 98; for Van Buren, 111; banks, 115, 117; loses representative, 121; Van Buren and Texas, 128, 132, 133, 140, 143, 149; and slavery, 161, 162; and Compromise of 1850, 178, 195; convicts, in 1860, 213; springs, 214; Know-Nothing fight, 242; John Brown raid, 258, 264; calls peace conference, 272; secession of, 275; Union areas, 279; western revolt and statehood, 279; resistance to conscript laws, 311; opposition party, 312, 323.

Wade, Benjamin F., 242, 253, 299.

Walker, Robert J., Senator, 128; Texas and Oregon letter, 129; Baltimore Convention, 129, 140, 147; Secretary of the Treasury, 147; Independent Treasury, 150; Tariff of 1846, 150, 151; for annexing Mexico, 157, 235; Governor of Kansas, 249; clash with Van Buren, 249; financial agent of United States in Europe, 315.

Walker, William, 198, 235.

War of 1812, 84; debt paid, 99; and New England, 268.

Washington, D.C., and Bank, 79, 209.

Washington Territory, 199.

Webster, Daniel, 15, 17, 30, 37, 54, 55; debate with Hayne, 61, 63, 66, 69, 70, 73, 74, 79, 80, 82, 84, 91, 93, 96, 107, 108, 110; and Clay, 117; Ashburton Treaty, 123, 125; mission to England, 126; resigns as Secretary of State, 126; and campaign of 1844, 131; and Oregon, 149, 150, 152; and "all of Mexico," 158; snubbed, 171, 172, 173; and Compromise of 1850, 176, 179; "Seventh-of-March" speech, 179; attacked, 180; Secretary of State, 180, 181; death, 181, 268.

Weed, Thurlow, for Taylor, and Southern alliance, 171, 179, 243, 255; conciliatory, 269, 271.

Wentworth, John, Republican leader, 255.

West, 2, 3; radical, 4; against Adams, 17; and Jackson, 18, 21, 23; alliance with South, 19, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 36, 109, 131, 159; religious life, 33; schools and colleges, 34, 35; and East, 39, 40, 43, 46; banks and circulation, 45; and courts, 51, 55, 58, 59; and public lands, 59, 62; and Bank, 60, 61, 63, 66, 67; Bank and Jackson, 69, 70, 74; market for East, 75, 80; removal of Indians, 87; population, 89, 90; speculation in, 91, 92; canals and railroads, 92, 93, 97; against Van Buren, 93, 96, 110; state debts, 98, 106; Specie Circular, 101, 108; for Harrison, 111, 112; and Calhoun, 120; Texas and Oregon, 122; Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 124; Walker letter, 129; and Mexican War, 160; for Cass, 172; railroad building, 189, 201, 205, 213; school lands, 223; threats of secession, 268; love of Union, 289; against emancipation, 304.

West Indies, trade with British, 84.

West Virginia, organized and admitted, 279; lost to South, 313.

Whigs, campaign of 1836, 93; panic of 1837, 102, 108, 109; in 1840, 110; divided, 114; and Tyler, 115; and Texas, 128, 147; Independent Treasury, 151; Taylor for President, 155, 157; and Wilmot Proviso, 170; Convention of 1848, 171, 173; Southern and Taylor, 174; Southern, for Union, 178; secure Compromise of 1850, 181; Northwestern, join Republicans, 241; Eastern, and Know-Nothings, 242, 243, 264.

White, Hugh Lawson, revolt against Jackson, 93; candidate for President, 93.

Whitney, Asa, and Pacific Railroad, 204, 233.

Whitney, Eli, cotton gin, 199.

Whittier, John G., lines on Webster, 180, 220.

Wilmot, David, and Wilmot Proviso, 170.

Wilmot Proviso, and Northwest, 153; in Congress, 170.

Wirt, William, 17, 53; and anti-Masonic party, 67, 70.

Wisconsin, 87; settlement, 89, 90, 105, 106; made State, 198; Indians removed, 199, 205; Republican party in, 241; nullifies Fugitive Slave Law, 252; Democratic, 302.

Wise, Henry A., 67; supports Tyler, 116, 121; defeats Know Nothings, 243, 253; and John Brown raid, 258.

Women, position of, on frontier, 32; in factories, 210; life on farm, 212.

Woolens Bill of 1827, 6.

Worcester Convention of 1857, 253.

Wright, Silas, 82, 105, 108.

Yale College, influence, 222.

Yancey, William L., Oregon and Texas, 132; expansionist, 150; and crisis of 1850, 176; retirement in 1850, 181; and public education, 223, 261; for secession, 264; opposed to Davis, 312; death, 312.

Yucatan, United States and, 157.

End of Project Gutenberg's Expansion and Conflict, by William E. Dodd