Chapter 25
But we can go further still. Whence comes the idea that all measures inspired by the sentiment of solidarity are contrary to Nature's trend? Observe her carefully, and she will not give lessons only in individualism. Side by side with the struggle for existence do we not find in operation what Lanessan calls "association for existence." Long ago, Espinas had drawn attention to "societies of animals," temporary or permanent, and to the kind of morality that arose in them. Since then, naturalists have often insisted upon the importance of various forms of symbiosis. Kropotkin in _Mutual Aid_ has chosen to enumerate many examples of altruism furnished by animals to mankind. Geddes and Thomson went so far as to maintain that "Each of the greater steps of progress is in fact associated with an increased measure of subordination of individual competition to reproductive or social ends, and of interspecific competition to co-operative, association."[257] Experience shows, according to Geddes, that the types which are fittest to surmount great obstacles are not so much those who engage in the fiercest competitive struggle for existence, as those who contrive to temper it. From all these observations there resulted, along with a limitation of Darwinian pessimism, some encouragement for the aspirations of the collectivists.
And Darwin himself would, doubtless, have subscribed to these rectifications. He never insisted, like his rival, Wallace, upon the necessity of the solitary struggle of creatures in a state of nature, each for himself and against all. On the contrary, in _The Descent of Man_, he pointed out the serviceableness of the social instincts, and corroborated Bagehot's statements when the latter, applying laws of physics to politics, showed the great advantage societies derived from intercourse and communion. Again, the theory of sexual evolution which makes the evolution of types depend increasingly upon preferences, judgments, mental factors, surely offers something to qualify what seems hard and brutal in the theory of natural selection.
But, as often happens with disciples, the Darwinians had out-Darwined Darwin. The extravagances of social Darwinism provoked a useful reaction; and thus people were led to seek, even in the animal kingdom, for facts of solidarity which would serve to justify humane effort.
* * * * *
On quite another line, however, an attempt has been made to connect socialist tendencies with Darwinian principles. Marx and Darwin have been confronted; and writers have undertaken to show that the work of the German philosopher fell readily into line with that of the English naturalist and was a development of it. Such has been the endeavour of Ferri in Italy and of Woltmann in Germany, not to mention others. The founders of "scientific socialism" had, moreover, themselves thought of this reconciliation. They make more than one allusion to Darwin in works which appeared after 1859. And sometimes they use his theory to define by contrast their own ideal. They remark that the capitalist system, by giving free course to individual competition, ends indeed in a _bellum omnium contra omnes_; and they make it clear that Darwinism, thus understood, is as repugnant to them as to Dühring.
But it is at the scientific and not at the moral point of view that they place themselves when they connect their economic history with Darwin's work. Thanks to this unifying hypothesis, they claim to have constructed--as Marx does in his preface to _Das Kapital_--a veritable natural history of social evolution. Engels speaks in praise of his friend Marx as having discovered the true mainspring of history hidden under the veil of idealism and sentimentalism, and as having proclaimed in the _primum vivere_ the inevitableness of the struggle for existence. Marx himself, in _Das Kapital_, indicated another analogy when he dwelt upon the importance of a general technology for the explanation of this psychology:--a history of tools which would be to social organs what Darwinism is to the organs of animal species. And the very importance they attach to tools, to apparatus, to machines, abundantly proves that neither Marx nor Engels were likely to forget the special characters which mark off the human world from the animal. The former always remains to a great extent an artificial world. Inventions change the face of its institutions. New modes of production revolutionise not only modes of government, but modes even of collective thought. Therefore it is that the evolution of society is controlled by laws special to it, of which the spectacle of nature offers no suggestion.
If, however, even in this special sphere, it can still be urged that the evolution of the material conditions of society is in accord with Darwin's theory, it is because the influence of the methods of production is itself to be explained by the incessant strife of the various classes with each other. So that in the end Marx, like Darwin, finds the source of all progress is in struggle. Both are grandsons of Heraclitus:--[Greek: polemos patêr pantôn]. It sometimes happens, in these days, that the doctrine of revolutionary socialism is contrasted as rude and healthy with what may seem to be the enervating tendency of "solidarist" philanthropy: the apologists of the doctrine then pride themselves above all upon their faithfulness to Darwinian principles.
* * * * *
So far we have been mainly concerned to show the use that social philosophies have made of the Darwinian laws for practical purposes: in order to orientate society towards their ideals each school tries to show that the authority of natural science is on its side. But even in the most objective of theories, those which systematically make abstraction of all political tendencies in order to study the social reality in itself, traces of Darwinism are readily to be found.
Let us take for example Durkheim's theory of Division of Labour.[258] The conclusions he derives from it are that whenever professional specialisation causes multiplication of distinct branches of activity, we get organic solidarity--implying differences--substituted for mechanical solidarity, based upon likenesses. The umbilical cord, as Marx said, which connects the individual consciousness with the collective consciousness is cut. The personality becomes more and more emancipated. But on what does this phenomenon, so big with consequences, itself depend? The author goes to social morphology for the answer: it is, he says, the growing density of population which brings with it this increasing differentiation of activities. But, again, why? Because the greater density, in thrusting men up against each other, augments the intensity of their competition for the means of existence; and for the problems which society thus has to face differentiation of functions presents itself as the gentlest solution.
Here one sees that the writer borrows directly from Darwin. Competition is at its maximum between similars, Darwin had declared; different species, not laying claim to the same food, could more easily coexist. Here lay the explanation of the fact that upon the same oak hundreds of different insects might be found. Other things being equal, the same applies to society. He who finds some unadopted specialty possesses a means of his own for getting a living. It is by this division of their manifold tasks that men contrive not to crush each other. Here we obviously have a Darwinian law serving as intermediary in the explanation of that progress of division of labour which itself explains so much in the social evolution.
And we might take another example, at the other end of the series of sociological systems. G. Tarde is a sociologist with the most pronounced anti-naturalistic views. He has attempted to show that all application of the laws of natural science to society is misleading. In his _Opposition Universelle_ he has directly combatted all forms of sociological Darwinism. According to him the idea that the evolution of society can be traced on the same plan as the evolution of species is chimerical. Social evolution is at the mercy of all kinds of inventions, which by virtue of the laws of imitation modify, through individual to individual, through neighbourhood to neighbourhood, the general state of those beliefs and desires which are the only "quantities" whose variation matters to the sociologist. But, it may be rejoined, that however psychical the forces may be, they are none the less subject to Darwinian laws. They compete with each other; they struggle for the mastery of minds. Between types of ideas, as between organic forms, selection operates. And though it may be that these types are ushered into the arena by unexpected discoveries, we yet recognise in the psychological accidents, which Tarde places at the base of everything, near relatives of those small accidental variations upon which Darwin builds. Thus, accepting Tarde's own representations, it is quite possible to express in Darwinian terms, with the necessary transpositions, one of the most idealistic sociologies that have ever been constructed.
These few examples suffice. They enable us to estimate the extent of the field of influence of Darwinism. It affects sociology not only through the agency of its advocates but through that of its opponents. The questions to which it has given rise have proved no less fruitful than the solutions it has suggested. In short, few doctrines, in the history of social philosophy, will have produced on their passage a finer crop of ideas.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 246: P. Flourens, _Examen du Livre de M. Darwin sur l'Origine des Espèces_, p. 53, Paris, 1864. See also Huxley, "Criticisms on the _Origin of Species," Collected Essays_, Vol. II, p. 102, London, 1902.]
[Footnote 247: _Inquiries into Human Faculty_, pp. 1, 2, 3 sq., London, 1883.]
[Footnote 248: _Darwinism and Politics_, pp. 9, 22, London, 1889.]
[Footnote 249: _Life and Letters of Charles Darwin_, II. p. 385.]
[Footnote 250: V. de Lapouge, _Les Sélections sociales_, p. 259, Paris, 1896.]
[Footnote 251: _Die natärliche Auslese beim Menschen_, Jena, 1893; _Du Gesellschaftsordnung und ihre natürlichen Grundlagen. Entwurf einer Sozialanthropologie_, Jena, 1896.]
[Footnote 252: _Etudes sur la Sélection dans ses rapports avec l'hérédité chez l'homme_, Paris, p. 481, 1881.]
[Footnote 253: _Die drei Bevölkerungsstufen_, Munich, 1889.]
[Footnote 254: _Evolution and Ethics_, p. 200; _Collected Essays_, Vol. IX, London, 1894.]
[Footnote 255: _Les Luttes entre Sociétés humaines et leurs phases successives_, Paris, 1893.]
[Footnote 256: _Le socialisme contemporain_, p. 384 (6th edit.), Paris, 1891.]
[Footnote 257: Geddes and Thomson, _The Evolution of Sex_, p. 311, London, 1889.]
[Footnote 258: _De la Division du Travail social_, Paris. 1893.]
INDEX
_Abraxas grossulariata_, 100
Acquired characters, transmission of, 20, 28, 42, 94, 120, 149, 171, 173
_Acraea johnstoni_, 290 [Transcriber's Note: No such page number or reference seen.]
Adaptation, 24, 27, 34, 39, 42-45, 50, 58, 79-86, 106, 107
Adloff, 140
Alexander, 217
Ameghino, 132, 138
Ammon, O., Works of, 271
_Anaea divina_, 69
Anglicus, Bartholomaeus, 237
Ankyroderma, 40
Anomma, 44
Anthropops, 132
Ants, modifications of, 43-46, 51
Ardigò, 207, 208
Argyll, Huxley and the Duke of, 238
Aristotle, 3, 237, 240
Avenarius, 211
Bacon, on mutability of species, 4, 5
Baehr, von, on Cytology, 99
Bain, 194
Baldwin, J. M., 53, Foot Note 165
Balfour, A. J., 241
Barratt, 217
Bates, H. W., on Mimicry, 70, 76 --232
BATESON, W., on _Heredity and Variation in Modern Lights_, 87-110 --on discontinuous evolution, 30
Bathmism, 14
Bells (Sir Charles) _Anatomy of Expression_, 177
Bentham, Jeremy, 217, 218
Bergson, H., 208
Berkeley, 200
Berthelot, 228
Bickford, E., experiments on degeneration by, 52
Biophores, 47
Blumenbach, 89
Bodin, 256
Bonald, on war, 273
Bonnet, 6
BOUGLÉ, C., on _Darwinism and Sociology_, 264-280
Bourdeau, 253
Bourget, P., 270
Boutroux, 208
Brassica, hybrids of, 106
_Brassica Napus_, 106
Broca, 137, 270
Brock, on Kant, Foot Note 6
Brunetière, 274
Bruno, on Evolution, 4
Buch, von, 15
Buckle, 252, 253, 256, 258
Buffon, 6-15, 21, 88
Burdon-Sanderson, J., letter from, Foot Note 224
BURY, J. B., on _Darwinism and History_, 246-263
Butler, Samuel, 9, Foot Note 17, Foot Note 57, Foot Note 61, 94, Foot Note 66, 107
Butterflies, mimicry in, 65-83 --sexual characters in, 59-63
Cabanis, 201
Candolle, de, 270
Carneri, 217
_Castnia linus_, 76
Caterpillars, variation in, 36, 37
Cesnola, experiments on Mantis by, 65
Chaerocampa, colouring of, 68
Chambers, R., _The Vestiges of Creation_ by, 15
Chromosomes and Chromomeres, 47, 96-100
Chun, Foot Note 36
Claus, Foot Note 21
Clodd, E., Foot Note 13
Coadaptation, 41-54
_Colobopsis truncata_, 44
Colour, E. B. Poulton, in relation to Sexual Selection, 61-65
Comte, A., 200-203, 252-255, 262, 265
Condorcet, 221, 250, 252, 258
Cope, 138
Correlation of organisms, Darwin's idea of the, 2
Cournot, 265
Cuvier, 9, 10, 266, 268
Cytology and heredity, 95, 96, 99, 100
_Danaida chrysippus_, 75
_Danaida genutia_, 75
_D. Plexippus_, 75
Dantec, Le, 274
Darwin, Charles, as an Anthropologist, 146-165 --on ants, 44 --and S. Butler, Foot Note 61, 94 --on Cirripedia, 212 --on the Descent of Man, 111-145 --evolutionist authors referred to in the _Origin_ by, 9
Darwin, Charles, and Haeckel, 137 --and History, 246-263 --and Huxley, 112 --on Lamarck, 28, 129 --on Language, 124 --and Malthus, 16, 24, 91 --on Patrick Matthew, 19 --on mental evolution, 166-196 --on Natural Selection, 21, 41, 54, 55, 122 --a "Naturalist for Naturalists," 87 --his personality, 187 --his influence on Philosophy, 197-222 --predecessors of, 1-22 --his views on religion, etc., 115, 116, 219-222 --his influence on religious thought, 223-245 --causes of his success, 10, 90
Darwin, Charles, on the _Vestiges of Creation_, 15 --and Wallace, 23, 183 --on evolution, 7-15, 88 --on Lamarckism, 11
Darwin, F., on Prichard's "Anticipations," 21
Darwinism, Sociology, Evolution and, 17-18
Degeneration, 49-51, 93
Deniker, 137
Descartes, 4
Descent, history of doctrine of, 1
_Descent of Man_, G. Schwalbe on _The_, 111-145 --rejection in Germany of _The_, 156
Diderot, 6, 198
Dimorphism, seasonal, 30
_Dismorphia orise_, 75
Dragomirov, 273
Driesch, Foot Note 67
Dryopithecus, 132
Dubois, E., on Pithecanthropus, 132, 137
Dühring, 214, 277
Duns Scotus, 200
Duret, C., 6
Durkheim, on division of labour, 278
Ecology, Foot Note 205
Eimer, 109
_Elymnias undularis_, 73, 75
Embryology, the Origin of Species and, 154, 155
Empedocles, 3, 27, 151
Engels, 277
Environment, action of, 12, 13, 15
Epicurus, a poet of Evolution, 4
Eristalis, 75
Espinas, 275
Evolution, and creation, 233 --conception of, 3-5, 9, 148, 151, 198 --discontinuous, 30 --experimental, 5, 7 --factors of, 11-15 --mental, 194 --Lloyd Morgan on mental factors in, 166-196 --Darwinism and Social, 18 --Saltatory, 29-32 --Herbert Spencer on, 204-207 --Philosophers and modern methods of studying, 4
Expression of the Emotions, 177-184
Ferri, 277
Ferrier, his work on the brain, 523 [Transcriber's note: No such page number or reference seen]
Fichte, 222
Flourens, 267
Flowers and Insects, 61, 78
Fouillée, 207, 208
Fraipont, on skulls from Spy, 134
GADOW, 162
_Gallus bankiva_, 102
Gallon, F., 125, 150, 269
Geddes, P., 17, Foot Note 32
Geddes, P. and A. W. Thomson, 276
Gegenbaur, 150, 163
Genetics, 93, 96
_Germ-plasm_, continuity of, 95 --Weismann on, 46-51
Germinal Selection, 36, 37, 46-51, 64
Gibbon, 248
Giuffrida-Ruggeri, 138, 140
Giotto, 259
Gizycki, 217
Goethe and Evolution, 8, 14, 15, 201 --on the relation between Man and Mammals, 161, 163 --221
Gore, Dr., 226
Gorjanovic-Kramberger, 134
Gosse, P. H., 234
_Grapta C. album_, 69
Groos, 187, 188
Gulick, 15, 53
Guyau, 217
Haberlandt, G., 34
HAECKEL, E., on _Charles Darwin as an Anthropologist_, 146-165 --and Darwin, 135-151, 137, 146-165 --on the Descent of Man, 137, 143 --on Lamarck, 8, Foot Note 21 --a leader in the Darwinian controversy, 137 --217
Häcker, 33
Hansen, 272
Hartmann, von, 240
Harvey, 4
Haycraft, 275
Hegel, 201, 203, 215, 251, 252, 255
Heraclitus, 278
Herder, 4, 5, 20
Heredity and Cytology, 95, 96 --Haeckel on, 147, 148, 149, 153 --and Variation, 87-110 --219, 224
Hering, E., on Memory, 153
Hertwig, O., 150
History, Darwin and, 246-263
Hobbes, T., 200, 215
Hobhouse, 242
HÖFFDING, H., on _The Influence of the Conception of Evolution on Modern Philosophy_, 197-222
Holothurians, calcareous bodies in skin of, 37-41
_Homo heidelbergensis_, Foot Note 118
_H. neandertalensis_, 138
_H. pampaeus_, 144
_H. primigenius_, 133, 134, 138, 144
_Homunculus_, 132
Hooker, Sir J. D., and Darwin, 23, 116
Huber, 170
Hügel, F. von, Foot Note 221
Hume, 200
Hutcheson, 216
Huxley, T. H., and Darwin, 112, 116, 268 --and the Duke of Argyll, 238 --on Lamarck, 89 --on Man, 111, 112, 137, 146, 156, 160, 163 --on Selection, 24, 91 --on transmission of acquired characters, 149 --14, 24, 104, 231-236, 273, 274
Hybrids, Sterility of, 104, 105, 106
Inheritance of acquired characters, 93, 94
Insects and Flowers, 60, 61, 78, 79
Instinct, 122, 172-175
Irish Elk, an example of coadaptation, 41, 42, 45
Jacoby, _Studies in Selection_ by, 272
James, W., 180, 191, 211
Jentsch, 275
Kallima, protective colouring of, 35, 68, 70
_K. inachis_, 68
Kammerer's experiments on Salamanders, 28
Kant, I., 4, 5, 6, 27, 198, 211, 212, 217, 221, 222
Keane, on the Primates, 138
Keith, on Anthropoid Apes, 138
Kepler, 198
Klaatsch, on Ancestry of Man, 140
Klaatsch and Hauser, 134
Knies, 266
Kölliker, his views on Evolution, 29, 150
Kollmann, on origin of human races, 144
Korschinsky, 31
Krause, E., Foot Note 10, 13
Kropotkin, 214, 275
Lamarck, his division of the Animal Kingdom, 160, 161 --Darwin's opinion of, 129 --on Evolution, 9-14, 21, 25, 171, 172, 173, 179, 180, 201, 202, 253 --on Man, 146, 148, 160, 163 --89, 109, 201, 202, 233
Lamarckian principle, 28, 41-44, 50-54, 67, 84, 86
Lamb, C., 229
Lamettrie, 198
Lamprecht, 260-263
Lanessan, J. L. de, Foot Note 17, 275
Lang, Foot Note 21
Lange, 180
Language, Darwin on, 123, 124 --Evolution and the Science of, 178, 179, 188
Lankester, Sir E. Ray, on degeneration, 268 --on educability, 170, 189
Lankester, Sir E. Ray, on the germ-plasm theory, 150
Lapouge, Vacher de, 270
Lartet, M. E., 189
Lasalle, 266
Laveleye, de, 275
Lawrence, W., 89, Foot Note 65
Lehmann-Nitsche, 138, 144
Leibnitz, 4, 5, 213
Lepidoptera, variation in, 37, 60-63
Lessing, 4, 221
Liddon, H. P., 234
_Limenitis archippus_, 74
Linnaeus, 6
Locy, W. A., Foot Note 15
Lovejoy, Foot Note 56
Lubbock, 125
Lucretius, a poet of Evolution, 4
Lyell, Sir Charles, and Darwin, 23, 116 --the uniformitarian teaching of, 89
Macacus, ear of, 119
Mach, E., 153, 211
Mahoudeau, 137
Maillet, de, 6
Majewski, Foot Note 238, Foot Note 239
Malthus, his influence on Darwin, 16-18, 21, 24, 91 --200, 273
Man, Descent of, 126, 127, 128, 131-145, 156-165, 189, 254, 265 --mental and moral qualities of animals and, 122-126, 164, 188-192 --pre-Darwinian views on the Descent of, 1
Man, Tertiary flints worked by, 136
_Man_, G. Schwalbe on Darwin's _Descent of_, 111-145
Manouvrier, 137
_Mantis religiosa_, colour experiments on, 65, 68
Marx, 262, 276-278
Matthew, P., and Natural Selection, 18, 19
Maupertuis, 6, 88, 103
Mayer, R., 197
_Mechanitis lysimnia_, 77
_Melinaea ethra_, 77
Mendel, 97-100, 184, 228
Merz, J. T., Foot Note 14
Mesopithecus, 132
Mill, J. S., 193, 200, 202, 218
Mimicry, 70-82
Moltke, on war, 273
Monkeys, fossil, 132
Montesquieu, 248
Monticelli, 155
MORGAN, C. LLOYD, on _Mental Factors in Evolution_, 166-196 --on Organic Selection, 53
Morgan, T. H., 99
Morselli, 138
Mortillet, 136
Moseley, Foot Note 224
Muller, Fritz, _Für Darwin_ by, 154 --on Mimicry, 233 --59, 77
Muller, J., 147
Müller, Max, on language, 124
Mutation, 15, 31, 184, 199, 209
Nägeli, 109, 151, 153
Nathusius, 103
Natural Selection, Darwin's views on, 90, 91, 122, 149 --Darwin and Wallace on, 2, 163, 183 --and design, 241, 242 --and educability, 195 --and human development, 125, 256, 257 --16-20, 25, 26, 41, 55-58, 64-86, 87-96, 199, 233
Neandertal skulls, 133, 134
Neodarwinism, 150
Newton, A., Foot Note 59
Newton, I., 197, 198
Niebuhr, 249, 263
Nietzsche, 214, 271
Nitsche, 119
Novicow, 274
Nuttall, G. H. F., 135
Occam, 200
Odin, 270
Oecology, see Ecology
_Oenothera lamarckiana_, 32
Oestergren, on Holothurians, 37-39
Oken, L., 7, 201
Organic Selection, 53, 54, 172, 173
Orthogenesis, 109
Osborn, H. F., 53, Foot Note 165 --_From the Greeks to Darwin_ by, 3-5, 12, 14, 20
_Ovibos moschatus_, 67
Owen, Sir Richard, 111
Packard, A. S., Foot Note 12, Foot Note 18
Palaeopithecus, 132
Paley, 18, 242, 244
Panmixia, Weismann's principle of, 54
_Papilio dardanus_, 72, 73, 74
_P. meriones_, 73
_P. merope_, 72
Pearson, K., Foot Note 7
Penck, 136
Peridineae, 33
Perrier, E., Foot Note 21, 20
Perthes, B. de, 123
Pfeffer, W., 28
Philosophy, influence of the conception of evolution on modern, 197-222
Pithecanthropus, 133, 134, 138, 143
Pitheculites, 144
Plate, Foot Note 37
Pliopithecus, 132
Pouchet, G., Foot Note 3
POULTON, E. B., experiments on Butterflies by, 65 --on J. C. Prichard, 20 --on Mimicry, 69, 71, 75, 78 --Foot Note 34, Foot Note 43, Foot Note 49, Foot Note 55
Prichard, J. C., 20, 21, 89, Foot Note 65
_Pronuba yuccasella_, 79
Protective resemblance, 65-70
Pusey, 115
Quatrefages, A. de, Foot Note 21, 19
Radiolarians, 33
Ranke, 249, 251, 255, 263
Rau, A., 153
Ray, J., 4
Regeneration, Foot Note 71
Religious thought, Darwin's influence on, 223-245
Reversion, 120, 121
Ridley, H. N., Foot Note 88
Ritchie, 270
Robinet, 6
Rolph, 217
Romanes, G. J., Foot Note 3, 15, 32, 54, 164, 234
Roux, 151, 152
Ruskin, 230
Rutot, 136
Saint-Hilaire, E. G. de, 8, 15, 20
Saltatory Evolution, 29-32 (see also Mutations)
Sanders, experiments on Vanessa by, 65
Savigny, 249
Schelling, 4, 5, 200, 201
Schleiden and Schwann, Cell-theory of, 147
Schoetensack, on _Homo heidelbergensis_, Foot Note 118
Schütt, 23
SCHWALBE, G., on _The Descent of Man_, 111-145
Seeck, O., Foot Note 240
Segregation, 97, 98
Selection, artificial, 24, 25, 26, 41, 45, 120, 269-272 --germinal, 35, 36, 46-52, 64
Selection, natural (see Natural Selection) --organic, 53, 171, 172 --sexual, 55-64, 117, 118 --social and natural, 271 --23-86, 103, 129, 130
Selenka, 131
Semnopithecus, 132
Semon, R., 28, 153
Sergi, 138, 143
Sex, recent investigations on, 99, 100
Sibbern, 201
_Smerinthus ocellata_, 38
_Smerinthus populi_, 38
_S. tiliae_, 38
Smith, A., 200
Sociology, Darwinism and, 264-280 --History and, 255
Sollas, W. J., 134
Sorley, W. R., 217
Species and varieties, 100
Spencer, H., on evolution, 204-209 --on the theory of Selection, 41
Spencer, H., on Sociology, 268 --on the transmission of acquired characters, 149 --on Weismann, 41, 150 --2, 17, 217, 231, 268
Sphingidae, variation in, 37
Spinoza, 153, 206
Standfuss, 82
Stephen, L., 217
Sterility in hybrids, 104-106
Sterne, C, Foot Note 10
Struggle for existence, 25, 26, 272-274
Sutton, A. W., Foot Note 73
Synapta, calcareous bodies in skin of, 38-41
Syrphus, 75
Tarde, G., 279
Tennant, F. R., Foot Note 218
Tetraprothomo, 138, 144
THOMSON, J. A., on _Darwin's Predecessors_, 1-22 --150 --and P. Geddes, 276
Treschow, 201
Treviranus, 8, 14, 15
Turgot, 249
Turner, Sir W., 150
Tylor, 267
Tyndall, W., 267