Part 1

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE: Minor typographical errors have been addressed, but standardisation of the differing spelling of Ojibwe words has not been attempted.

BULLETIN OF THE PUBLIC MUSEUM OF THE CITY OF MILWAUKEE

Vol. 4, No. 3, Pp. 327-525, Plates 46-77 May 2, 1932

Ethnobotany of the Ojibwe Indians

By Huron H. Smith

MILWAUKEE, WIS., U. S. A. Published by Order of the Board of Trustees

Printed by the AETNA PRESS, INC. Milwaukee, Wis.

Engravings by the SCHROEDER ENGRAVING COMPANY Milwaukee, Wis.

Ethnobotany of the Ojibwe Indians

CONTENTS

Page

Foreword 333

Introduction 337

Ojibwe Medicines 348

Ojibwe Medicinal Materials 352

Other than plants 352

Ojibwe Medicinal Plants 353

Ojibwe Vegetal Foods 393

Ojibwe Food Plants 394

Ojibwe Vegetal Fibers 411

Ojibwe Fiber Plants 412

Ojibwe Vegetal Dyes 424

Ojibwe Dye Plants 424

Miscellaneous Uses of Plants 426

Conclusion 433

ILLUSTRATIONS

Plates

Plate XLVI. fig. 1. Ojibwe garden. fig. 2. Ojibwe wigwam.

XLVII. fig. 1. Ojibwe dream dance. fig. 2. Jerking deer meat.

XLVIII. fig. 1. Bead work. fig. 2. Lac du Flambeau.

XLIX. fig. 1. Birch bark baskets. fig. 2. Cradle board.

L. fig. 1. Pounding ash splints. fig. 2. Making baskets.

LI. fig. 1. Rushes for weaving. fig. 2. Ojibwe grave houses.

LII. fig. 1. Peeling birch log. fig. 2. Birch bark roll.

LIII. fig. 1. Splitting cedar log. fig. 2. Making canoe ribs.

LIV. fig. 1. Shaping canoe nose. fig. 2. Canoe form.

LV. fig. 1. Jack Pine roots. fig. 2. Coiled roots.

LVI. fig. 1. Boiling pitch. fig. 2. Sewing canoe.

LVII. fig. 1. Pitching seams. fig. 2. Launching canoe.

LVIII. fig. 1. Ojibwe garden. fig. 2. Bark wigwam.

LIX. fig. 1. Piawantaginum. fig. 2. White Cloud.

LX. fig. 1. Bear Island. fig. 2. Tamarack branch.

LXI. fig. 1. Ground Pine. fig. 2. Giant Puffball.

LXII. fig. 1. Balsam Fir. fig. 2. White Spruce.

LXIII. fig. 1. White Pine. fig. 2. Norway Pine.

LXIV. fig. 1. Bur Oak. fig. 2. Red Oak.

LXV. fig. 1. Red Maple. fig. 2. Mountain Holly.

LXVI. fig. 1. Sphagnum Moss. fig. 2. Virginia Grape Fern.

LXVII. fig. 1. Pitcher-plant. fig. 2. Cranberries.

LXVIII. fig. 1. Poison Ivy. fig. 2. Box Elder.

LXIX. fig. 1. Balsam Apple. fig. 2. Great Willow-herb.

LXX. fig. 1. Wild Currant. fig. 2. River-bank Grape.

LXXI. fig. 1. Canada Mayflower. fig. 2. Spikenard.

LXXII. fig. 1. Twisted Stalk. fig. 2. Solomon’s Seal.

LXXIII. fig. 1. Meadow Rue. fig. 2. Carrion-flower.

LXXIV. fig. 1. Wild Columbine. fig. 2. Canada Anemone.

LXXV. fig. 1. Goldthread. fig. 2. Wintergreen.

LXXVI. fig. 1. Red Baneberry. fig. 2. Labrador Tea.

LXXVII. fig. 1. Agrimony. fig. 2. Hawthorn.

FOREWORD

This bulletin is the third in a series of six, recounting the field work done among Wisconsin Indians to discover their present uses of native or introduced plants and, insofar as is possible, the history of these plant uses by their ancestors. As far back as 1888 Hoffman[85] reported that the medicinal lore of the Ojibwe would soon be gone. But thirty-two years later, it is still partially recalled and practised among the more primitive bands of these people. How long it will persist is problematical. The Ojibwe are the most numerous of any of our tribes and as long as they live in the northern forest and lake district of Wisconsin, so long will the older Indians continue to explain the natural history of their environment to the young men and women of the tribe.

The writer deplores the brevity of the time that could be devoted to each tribe, and applauds the similar study reported by Miss Frances Densmore[86] in her fifteen years of research among the Ojibwe. Necessarily the most valuable information comes from the oldest Indians, and many informants have died since this study was made.

Three trips were made, usually of six weeks duration. The first was made in June, 1923 to the Lac du Flambeau Reservation, in Vilas County, Wisconsin. The same region was visited again later in the fall. During the spring of 1924 one trip was made to Leech Lake, Minnesota, where the remnant of the Pillager Band of the Ojibwe live on Bear Island, (Plate 60, fig. 1), and the surrounding mainland. Since then, trips have been made to Redcliff, Bayfield County, to Odanah, Iron County, to Lac Court Oreilles, Clark County, and to scattered bands in various sections of northern Wisconsin. The principal work was done at Lac du Flambeau and Leech Lake. The Leech Lake trip checked results obtained at Lac du Flambeau.

The writer thanks those officials and private citizens who assisted by introductions to Indians and by making his stay among them comfortable. Mr. James W. Balmer, Indian Agent, then at Lac du Flambeau, now at Pipestone, Minnesota, and his chief clerk, Mr. Walter H. Shawnee, a Shawnee Indian, still in service at Lac du Flambeau, and Mr. John Allen, Ojibwe Indian and school disciplinarian all gave valued advice and quartered us at their Teacher’s Club. Mr. Edward Rogers, of Walker, Minnesota, a very successful Ojibwe attorney, and the Noble brothers, Mr. John W. Noble and Mr. E. W. (“Van”) Noble, proprietor of Forest View Lodge, directly across from Bear Island, rendered valuable assistance with the Pillager band of Ojibwe.

The writer collected every plant he could find in each region because he had been informed that the Ojibwe differ from other Wisconsin Indians in that they believe that every plant that grows is some kind of medicine or useful for something. The only plants discovered for which they had no name or use were adventive plants, and one could fairly well establish the date of their appearance in the state, because the Indians pay much more attention to our native flora than do the whites.

Most of our informants were men, because they found it easier to talk to the writer than the women. It was easy to get the women to talk of old time methods of preparing aboriginal foods. The Ojibwe had a large number of hunting medicines used as charms. These were accompanied by drawings on the ground designating what they hoped to accomplish in killing game for their larder. About sixty-five per cent of their medicinal plants were actually valuable medicinally, the remainder being employed in a shamanistic or superstitious manner. The writer concludes that their great knowledge of plants has been achieved through long periods of time by a process of trial and error, basing this belief upon their fear of mushrooms. Both men and women pointed out plants in their native habitat and were willing to explain their uses. They are the real ones to thank for the facts discovered and without their cooperation such a study would be impossible. A list of them follows.

In conformity with previous bulletins, the plants will be listed (1) under their various uses and (2) under each of these captions, alphabetically by their families. Where possible, the literal translation of the Indian name is given.[87]

INFORMANTS

In the course of this work many informants have assisted the author, among whom the following residents of Lac du Flambeau, Wisconsin, should be noted:

Jas. W. Balmer, Indian Agent; Walter H. Shawnee, Chief Clerk; Charley Burns, Cagkecci, Indian Policeman; John Allen, Indian Disciplinarian; Anawabi (Exalted One) Village Chief; Jack Doud, Kêkêk (Sparrow-hawk) Captain in Civil War; Bert Skye, Anawabi’s Son; Mrs. Bert Skye; Bear Skin, Mûkwean (Bearskin) Medicine Man; Jack Patterson, Sîkurtz, of Sand Lake; Long John Bear of Pelican Lake; John White Feather, Wabackiˈganeˈbi, of Flambeau Lake; Mrs. John White Feather; Webujuonokwe, of Flambeau village; Amîkons (Young Beaver) of Flambeau village.

We also received information from the following residents of Leech Lake, Minnesota, Ga-sagaˈskwadjiˈmêkag:

Ben Smith, Pcikci (Deer) of Boy Lake, Minnesota; Edward Rogers of Walker, Minnesota; John Peper, Jigwaˈbe of Bear Island; Piˈawantagiˈnûm, Peper’s mother; White Cloud, Wabackaˈnakwad (White Cloud) of Bear Island; Inwapiˈkwe, White Cloud’s wife; Wasawanaˈkwît, White Cloud’s son of Federal Dam, Minnesota; John Smith, Ajoˈvbêneˈsa of Bear Island; Mowîcgaˈwûs of Bear Island; Ed Coming, Getakiˈbînes, of Brevick, Minnesota.

Miciˈmîn (Apple), Chief, and John Goslin, Wabackiˈganeˈbi, of Lac Court Oreilles, Wisconsin, also contributed information.

PHONETIC KEY

The Ojibwe have written their language for a longer time than any other Algonquin tribe and, while they employ a syllabary[88] in corresponding with absent members of the tribe, it has little value to the ethnologist. The writer has two books printed in English and Ojibwe. One is “A collection of Chippeway and English Hymns”, translated by Peter Jones, Indian Missionary, the second edition of which was printed by the Methodist Book Concern in 1847. This was given to the writer by Mr. Henry Ritchie, an Ojibwe, of Laona, Wisconsin. The other is “A Dictionary of the Otchipwe Language”, explained in English, Part 1, English-Otchipwe, by R.R. Bishop Baraga, published by Beauchemin and Valois, Montreal, in 1878. This was given to the writer by Capt. John Valentine Satterlee, of the Menomini tribe, Keshena, Wisconsin. With the aid of either of them one experiences little difficulty in pronouncing Ojibwe words.

In this bulletin, the following phonetic system will be used.

VOWELS

a as in art ä as in flat e as in prey ê as in met i as in police î as in bit o as in go û as in luck u as in rule w, y and h as in English ai as in aisle

CONSONANTS

Post-Pal Medio-Pal Pre-Pal Dental Bilabial Stop k, g d t t b p Spirant c j s z Affricative dj tc f v Nasal ñ n m s as in since g as in give z as in zeal c as sound of sh j as sound of zh tc as sound of tc in witch dj as sound of j in jug

While the writer is not a linguist, Indian pronunciation came easily to him and he was able to pronounce all plant names in an intelligible manner to Ojibwe people whom he had never seen before.

INTRODUCTION

The subjects of this bulletin, the Ojibwe Indians, have probably been designated by more different spellings of their name than any other tribe in the country. The anglicized version is Chippewa, an adaptation of the Ojibway of Longfellow. Ojibway means “to roast till puckered up,” referring to the puckered seams on their moccasins, from “Ojib”, “to pucker up”, “ub-way”, “to roast”. In historic literature some of the more common ways of spelling their name have been: Achipoes, Chepeways, Chipaways, Odjibwag, Otchipwe, Uchipweys. Less familiar names applied to them have been: Baouichtigouin, Bawichtigouek, Dewakanha, Dshipowehaga, Estiaghicks, Hahatwawne, Khahkhahtons, Neayaog, Ninniwas, Saulteur, Santeaux, Wahkahtowah and at least fifty others.

The Ojibwe is one of the largest tribes in the United States and Canada, and lived originally along both shores of the Great Lakes as far west as the Turtle Mountains, North Dakota. They are of Algonkian stock and in the north are closely related to the Cree and Maskegon tribes. In the south, through Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota they have always been closely associated with the Ottawa and Pottawatomi. These three have been recently called the Three Fires Confederacy. Their languages were even similar, and Pottawatomi have often told the writer that their tongue was an abbreviated Ojibwe language,—“like it was a nickname”.

This numerous people lived far away from the frontiers of the colonial war period, hence are not often mentioned in the early history of the United States. The original habitation of the Ojibwe in Wisconsin is supposed to have been at La Pointe, a town no longer in existence, in Ashland County, near Lake Superior. The first reference to them in history is in the Jesuit Relation of 1640 when they resided at Sault Ste. Marie. It is thought that Nicolet met them either in 1634 or 1639. Father Allouez found them at Superior, Wisconsin, in 1665-67. According to Perrot,[89] in 1670-99 those Ojibwe on the Lake Superior shore of Wisconsin cultivated corn and were living peaceably with their neighbors, the Sioux. About this time they first obtained fire-arms, and pushed their way westward fighting with the Sioux and the Meskwaki. The French established a trading post at Shangawawmikong, afterwards La Pointe, in 1692, which was the most important Ojibwe settlement in Wisconsin.

In the early years of the eighteenth century, the Ojibwe succeeded in driving the Meskwaki from northern Wisconsin, when the Meskwaki joined forces with the Sauk Indians. The Ojibwe then turned their attention to the Sioux, driving them across the Mississippi and as far as the Turtle Mountains in North Dakota. The Ojibwe took part in frontier settlement wars up to the close of the war of 1812. Those living within the United States made a treaty with the Government in 1815 and have since remained peaceful, with the exception of a minor uprising among the Pillager Band of Ojibwe on Leech Lake, Minnesota. Most of them live on reservations or allotted land in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and North Dakota. There was a small band of Swan Creek and Black River Ojibwe who sold their lands in Michigan in 1836 and went to live with the Munsee, in Franklin County, Kansas.

It was represented to the writer that the Pillager Band of Ojibwe should be quite interesting and primitive since they were the only unsubdued Indians left in the United States. They are supposed to have revolted during the Civil War, when Government attention was concentrated on determining whether or not, the Union should be preserved. They pillaged a small town, killed the inhabitants, took all of the food stores and fled to Bear Island in Leech Lake, Minnesota, shown in plate 60, fig. 1. Again, while the United States was at war with Spain in 1898, the Ojibwe complained bitterly about certain irregularities in regard to the disposal of the dead and fallen timber on Leech Lake Reservation. They accused white speculators of firing the woods to create a class of timber known as dead and down timber, thus depriving them of their winter livelihood in logging operations.[90]

Rather indiscriminate arrests of the Pillager Indians by United States marshals caused resentment and the actual warfare was caused by the attempt of a deputy marshal to arrest certain Indians accused of selling whiskey on the reservation. On September 15, 1898, two Indians were arrested by deputy marshals and rescued by their comrades. Warrants were issued for the arrest of the more than twenty Indians who had assisted in the rescue. Since the marshals feared the Indians, they asked for the assistance of troops. It was thought that a show of force by regular troops would be sufficient. Twenty men of the Third Regiment U. S. Infantry were sent, but since the Indians showed no sign of yielding eighty more left Fort Snelling for Walker, Minnesota. Major M. C. Wilkinson and General J. M. Bacon were in charge.

Two small lake steamers and a barge took the troops to Bear Island, and they anchored in shoal water just across from the island, proceeding by barge to the mainland. The battle took place at the house of Bujonegicig, who died only a few years ago. The troops were fired upon from the woods and Major Wilkinson, Sergeant Butler and four privates were killed. Ten were wounded. On October 6, 1898, 214 more troops came to assist, but no further firing was encountered and the uprising was over. The Commissioner of Indian Affairs, W. A. Jones, arrived from Washington, October 10. The next morning he and Father Aloysius, a priest with great influence over the Indians, held a long and friendly conference with the Pillager chiefs investigating and settling the timber complaints. Troops flooded that country and persuaded the Bear Islanders to respond to the warrants. They were duly tried, sentenced and fined, but the fines were remitted and after two months imprisonment the sentences were commuted and pardons granted.

The writer found but few who remembered the battle, for while there were over a hundred men able to bear arms in 1898, the Ojibwe could not successfully fight the influenza attack of 1919 and the present population consists of only fourteen persons: John Peper, wife, daughter and mother; White Cloud, shown in plate 59, fig. 2, wife and son; Moîckaˈwus and wife; John Smith, Frank Marshall, wife and two children. John Peper’s mother was said to be 106 years old and looked the part, as shown in plate 59, fig. 1. John, her youngest boy was past 70 years of age. Another very old resident, John Smith, had died the year before the writer arrived. His age was said to be 138 years. His recollections are said to have included George Washington as President of the United States.

All of our Ojibwe residents in Wisconsin and those in Michigan and Minnesota were forest Indians and, as such, great hunters, although they cultivated maize in a small way. They made very superior birch bark canoes and were at home on the many lakes of the northland, subsisting largely on fish and game. While at the present time, they dress themselves to satisfy the pre-conceived ideas of tourists, in the early days, their headdress consisted of otter skin caps, often embellished with eagle feathers, one for each enemy slain in battle and consequently for each scalp secured. The great feathered bonnet was not of their culture, but has been more recently borrowed from the Plains Indians. They never used the tepee of the Plains Indians, such as is shown in plate 46, fig. 2, and in plate 58, fig. 2, but built a wigwam. The wigwam was easily constructed in a half-day’s time. Poles were thrust into the ground in a circle of from twelve to twenty feet, their tips bent and securely tied in the center with basswood bark cord to form a hemisphere, about eight feet in height at the center. The whole was then covered with bark of balsam, or woven cat-tail mats, such as the one shown in plate 46, fig. 2, and roofed with birch bark. An entrance and smoke hole were left and mats thrown upon the ground. It was much warmer than a tepee and better adapted to the heavy snow fall of the north, and to low temperatures. All of their storage houses and their smaller sweat lodges were similarly made. Their medicine lodges followed the same construction though they were much longer: being eighty, a hundred and even a hundred and fifty feet in length.

We had occasion to see the medicine lodge in use several times during our stay at Lac du Flambeau. This lodge was in the old Flambeau village, just at the edge of the woods. It was a huge affair, about one hundred and fifty feet long, with a stout framework of saplings joined together and arched over at a height of eight feet. The framework was rigidly held together with other horizontal saplings secured by basswood bark cord at every junction of poles. It stood as a framework for several years. During use, the sides of this framework are covered with cat-tail mats and the top with sewed birch bark, as shown in figure 21, of the Museum’s 1923 Yearbook. By using a bone needle and nettle string the cat-tail mats are sewed together with an invisible stitch, that makes a windproof cover.

Down the center of the lodge is a long ellipse where countless dance steps have bared the earth of this otherwise grassy plot. The entrance of the lodge faces the east, and there is an exit to the west. A fire is usually burning just inside the eastern entrance, the smoke ascending through a smoke hole left in the roof. The medicine men are gathered to the left of the fire on the north while the patient is usually seated to the right of the fire on the south. The medicine drum in use during a treatment for healing is smaller than the dream dance drum, usually seen by tourists, and of a different shape. It is about eight inches in diameter and sixteen inches high. The buckskin stretched over the end is moistened from time to time by reversing the drum which contains water, and rubbing the skin to permit it to take up the liquid. The tone and volume are greatly enhanced by this procedure.

The medicine lodge members sit in groups around the lodge starting at the north side, and proceeding down to the west and back along the south side toward the east again. Every song and march around the lodge is repeated four times, this being their sacred number. The time needed in effecting a cure is varied but the writer has seen a woman carried in on a litter, recover in three hours time and take part in the dancing.

The Indian Service in the past has wished to discourage treatment by medicine men and on larger reservations has supplied a resident physician. It is a constant competition between the two, for naturally a white physician cannot cure every case any more than a medicine man can, and when the medicine man apparently effects cures after the physician has given up or appeared to produce no improvement, the credulous patients are going to continue to believe in the medicine men. Christianity has had but little effect upon the Ojibwe so far as the writer has been able to observe, largely because of the reputation of the medicine men among them.

According to the late Dr. William Jones, the ethnologist mentioned in “Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki Indians”, Part 2 of this volume, the Pillager Band of Bear Island occasionally practiced cannibalism ceremonially, and even as late as 1902 ate human flesh on the Rainy River during a famine. He cites the fact in 1905 that polygamy was once common and even still occurred among wandering bands.

Many visitors to the northland think of the country in terms of sand, and consider it unfit for use agriculturally. While sandy soil is common, it is also easy to find very good productive soil and in some cases even clay. The Indian settlements and homesteads were never extensive and four or five acres of land seem to suffice them for growing hay and garden crops. The agency Indian farmer maintains demonstration garden plots, such as the one shown in plate 46, fig. 1, and also more extensive farms, and constantly advises with those who are trying to farm. The Indian women even grow some cultivated flowers. At Lac du Flambeau, the Ojibwe take great pride in their annual Indian fair and display farm animals, horticultural products, and native arts and crafts for premiums. It is a pity that more do not follow agriculture because they have sufficient farming land and have also good examples to follow. Most of them like the quick returns made in selling Indian art work, or made acting as guides for fishing and hunting parties. The easy money is too soon spent and they suffer considerably before the winter is over.