Chapter 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 l. 7 . . . || _est cher à ma mémoire!_ = 6 sylls.

It is for this reason that Racine avails himself (ll. 92, 436, 514, 1232) of the license to spell _encor_ instead of _encore_, thereby reducing the word by one syllable:

1 2 3 4 5 6 l. 436 . . . || _le voit encor la nuit_;

and conversely he writes _jusques_ for _jusque_ before _au_, to prevent the elision and keep the word dissyllabic, in

1 2 3 4 5 6 l. 136 _Sion, jusques au ciel_: || . . . .

Similarly in l. 426, for the simpler expression

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 _Tous révèrent à genoux_,

he writes,

1 2 3 4 5 6 _Tout révèr(e) à genoux_, ||

reducing the seven syllables of the former to a correct hemistich.

CAESURA.

Between the two hemistiches of an hexameter there must be a pause, called _la césure_, or 'caesura.'

RHYME.

French poetry being less rhythmical than English, owing to the absence of strong word-accents, makes up the deficiency by much greater stress on rhyme. In French verse, rhyme not only is almost indispensable, but must, in a measure, satisfy the eye as well as the ear. For instance, words ending in 's' 'x' or 'z' can only rhyme with words also ending in one of these three letters. Hence, the use of such obsolete forms as _voi_ for _vois_ (ll. 890, 947); the latter could not rhyme with _moi_ or _roi_.

French rhymes are called "feminine" when they have a 'mute e' in or after their last sounded syllable; e.g., _descendue_, _mémoire_, _armées_, _coururent_, _cabales_, _assassinaient_ are feminine rhymes. In all other cases they are called 'masculine' rhymes.

In heroic verse the masculine and feminine rhymes are generally found in alternating pairs. In lyrics, however, they are freely crossed, but with this restriction, that one rhyme of either kind is never found next to a different one of the same kind, i.e., two _different_ masculines or feminines are never found in juxtaposition.

HIATUS.

Two sounded vowels coming together form a "hiatus." A hiatus between a vowel at the end of a word and another at the beginning of the next, is forbidden. Hence, l. 546, where the straightforward expression would have been _lui échappe_, Racine wrote the equivalent _nous échappe_, in order to avoid the hiatus.

Lastly, a sounded vowel, followed by an unelided 'mute e,' must be at the end of the line. Thus the word _Mardochée_ must always be at the end of the line, or else be followed by a word beginning with a vowel or 'mute h,' so that its 'mute e' may be elided. Cf. ll. 44, 618, and 156, 459, etc. Such words as _armées_, _joies_, etc., whose 'mute e' cannot be elided, can never occur in the body of the line. The only exception is made in favor of the verb-endings in _-oient_ and _-aient_. Cf. ll. 527, 1111.

In French poetry, as in French grammar, 'mute h' always = a vowel, and 'aspirate h' = a consonant.

The rules given above apply to classical French poetry only. The modern poetical schools of the nineteenth century have been taking liberties with them, especially with the caesura. The latest school of French poets, the _symbolistes_ or _décadents_ as they style themselves, are attempting to overthrow every one. At their hands the caesura has finally disappeared, and the following form, called a _ternaire_, has become possible:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 _Où je filai | pensivement | la blanche laine_. (Th. de Banville.)

Then the 'mute e's' are disregarded:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 _Avec les filles | du vieux seigneur | en robes blanches_. (H. de Régnier.)

The number of syllables is of little account:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 _Des mortes douces | qui moururent là | quelque soir. (H. de Régnier).

The hiatus is no longer tabooed, and lastly, not only the artificial rules of rhyme, but rhyme itself, is being done away with: assonance may take its place. If the constitution of the French language did not make it unlikely that these reforms should prove permanent, the vehicle of French poetic thought would become mere harmonious prose.

APPENDIX II.

_THE PAST TENSES IN FRENCH_.

The English praeterite being the equivalent of three tenses in French, it is of the utmost importance that a clear idea of the shades of meaning conveyed by the latter should be firmly possessed.

i.

_WHENEVER REPETITION OF THE ACTION IS IMPLIED_ the IMPARFAIT is used.

The force, in English, is "used to . . .," "kept . . . -ing," etc.

E.g., Esth. l. 6: _m'aidais à soupirer_ . . . "wast wont to sigh with me."

l. 83: . . . _disais-je_, . . . = "I would say"

ii.

_WHEN NO REPETITION OF THE ACTION IS IMPLIED_.

A. IF THE ACTION IS CONSIDERED AS BEING SIMPLY IN PROGRESS, WITHOUT REFERENCE EITHER TO ITS BEGINNING OR TO ITS END, again the IMPARFAIT is used.

The force, in English, is "was . . . -ing."

E.g., l. 12: _je vivais séparée_ = "I was living apart."

l. 58: . . . _attendaient leur arrêt_ = "were awaiting their doom."

B. IF THE ACTION IS STATED WITH REFERENCE EITHER TO ITS BEGINNING, OR TO ITS END, OR TO BOTH, the PASSÉ DÉFINI is used.

Thus _a. Simple occurrence_, which is the introduction of a new action now beginning to take place, takes the _passé défini_.

E.g., l. 19: . . . _ajouta-t-il_, . . . = "he [then] added."

l. 26: . . . _qui sauva nos aïeux_ = "which [once before] saved our forefathers."

l. 494.: _il trembla pour sa vie_ = "he began to tremble for his life."

_b. Continuous duration through a completed period of time_ which may be expressed or implied, takes the _passé défini_.

E.g., l. 4: . . . _fus de mes premiers ans la compagne assidue_ = "wast the constant companion of my earliest years."

l. 272: . . . _qui ne furent jamais_ = "who never [in all time] had existence."

l. 477: . . . _il fut des Juifs_ = "there was once [but is no more] a race of Jews."

NOTE that the action may be stated as recurring a given or indefinite number of times, and yet the verb will not be in the imperfect.

E.g., l. 249: _Mon pere mille fois m'a dit_ . . .

l. 531: _Et j'ai pâli deux fois_. . . .

If the imperfect were used here, the meaning would be "My father used to tell me a thousand times," i.e., he told me 1000 X n times, and in the second sentence, "I grew pale 2 X n times."

The student is recommended to account to himself carefully for the different tenses used in contrast to one another in the following passages:

ll. 4 and 6; 72 and 73; 1058 sqq. and 1073; 1074 to 1082.

PASSÉ INDÉFINI.

With regard to the third tense, the PASSÉ INDÉFINI, there is no difficulty. It is used:

_A_. Precisely like the English compound of the past.

E.g., l. 30: _le ciel a-t-il conduit_ . . . = "has heaven brought about. . ."

l. 158: _a . . . conduit vos pas_ = "has guided your footsteps."

_B_. As a colloquial form of the passe defini in all its uses.

E.g., l. 24: _j'ai su trouver_ = "I succeeded in finding."

l. 399: . . . _que j'ai laissé plus calme_ = "whom I left . . ."

APPENDIX III.

_ACTIVE INFINITIVES WITH PASSIVE MEANING_.

_Faire_, _laisser_, and a very few verbs of physical perception, such as _voir_, _entendre_, _sentir_, are idiomatically used before an active infinitive which assumes a passive meaning. E.g., _J'ai fait faire un habit_, "I have had a coat made."

These constructions are due to the dropping of the obvious subject of the infinitive ("I made [the tailor] make a coat") which must be supplied in order to account for the form.

E.g., Esth. l. 9: . . . _je te fais chercher_ = _que je fais [mes esclaves] te chercher.

l. 146: _Quand verrai-je relever tes remparts_ = _quand verrai-je [tes fils] relever tes remparts_.

l. 386: _Sa voix s'est fait entendre_ = _sa voix a fait [nous] entendre elle-même_.

l. 731: _laissant de ses eaux partager le secours_ = _laissant [cette main] partager le secours de ses eaux_.

For other instances of this construction, see ll. 110, 181, 394, 407, 523.

This construction is possible in English: . . . "for whose sake Artemis let slay the boar" (Swinburne, Argument of "Atalanta in Calydon.")

NOTE. It should be borne in mind that, should the subject of the infinitive be expressed, whenever the infinitive is _transitive_, that subject may (and if the first verb is _faire_, must) be put in the dative case, or in the oblique case with _par_. Thus in l. 52,

_Il me fit d'un empire accepter l'espérance_,

_me_ is dative and not accusative. Similarly in l. 1280,

_Il nous fait remporter une illustre victoire_,

_nous_ is dative.

APPENDIX IV.

QUE, _CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVERBIAL_.

The interrogative pronouns are _Qui?_ = "Who?" or "Whom?" and _quoi?_ = "What?" the latter having the conjunctive form _que_, which, as is the case with all conjunctives, must be used in preference to the disjunctive form, if possible.

i.

The CONJUNCTIVE QUE is used:

_A_. Instead of accusative _quoi_:

Esth. l. 161: _Que nous annoncez-vous?_

l. 593: _Que penses-tu?_

Also ll. 637, 675, 762, 1078, 1104, etc.

In _Que sert?_ (ll. 874 and 333), the _que_ is probably the accus. conjunctive, due to a confusion in the construction of _servir_. (See N. to l. 259)

_B_. Instead of nominative _quoi_, when followed by the formal subject _ce_ or _il_.

E.g., _Qu'est-ce? Qu'est-ce que c'est?_ etc.

Esth. l. 596: _Que sont-ils?_

l. 713: _Que vous semble?_ ( = _Que vous semble-t-il?_)

ii.

QUE is used ADVERBIALLY:

_A_. As an interrogative = "why," followed by _ne_ and no _pas_.

E.g. Esth. l. 558: _Que n'a-t-il plus tôt demandé son salaire?_

Also, but very rarely, in the affirmative.

E.g., l. 523: _Que tardez-vous?_

_B_. As an exclamative = "how!"

E.g., l. 465: _Que ce temps est long à mon impatience!_

Also ll. 691, 735, 946.

_C_. As a relative of time = "when."

E.g., l. 569: _Sur le point que la vie_, etc.

APPENDIX V.

EN.

Reference to the derivation of this word will do much to remove the difficulty attending a clear understanding of its various functions.

i.

EN, _PREPOSITION_, from the Latin _in_, offers no stumbling-block save in its second use = "as" or "like."

Eg., Esth. l. 1192: _on va donner en spectacle_ = "as a spectacle."

l. 174; _il nous croit en horreur_ = "he thinks us an object of horror." Cf. also l. 246 and l. 1177.

In Corneille's "Le Cid" (l. 318) _vivre en infâme_ = "to live [as] an infamous man."

ii.

EN, _CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUN_, from the Latin _inde_ ("hence," "from that," etc.) is used:

_A_. As an ordinary genitive = "of" or "from it, him," "her," "them," etc.

_B_. As a partitive accusative; as we might say in English: "I will take of that."

These two uses are too frequent to require illustration.

_C_. With the force of "on account of that," "for that," when it is not always to be translated in English.

E.g., Esth. l. 234: _Nous n'en verrons pas moins_, etc. = "none the less [for that]." Cf. also l. 630.

l. 934: . . . _et j'en frémis = "I shudder at the sight," lit., "because of this," viz., because this man is Haman.

l. 1082: _Les Juifs . . . en poussèrent des cris_, i.e. on account of this promise of mildness given by the king.

_D_. In a number of expressions where, from constant use, it has become, so to speak, stereotyped:

E.g., l. 1144: _J'en atteste_ = "I call to witness [for the truth of this] . . ."

l. 1162: _C'en est fait_ = "It is all over [with my pride]." Cf. l. 164, where _c'en est fait d'Israël_ would be equally correct.

l. 820: _Il n'en est pas ainsi de_ = "such is not the case with."

_E_. In a few semi-idiomatic expressions, with a generalizing force due to the broadening of the meaning "on account of this," "in this matter," into that of "in any matter."

Eg., l. 375: _on s'en peut reposer sur ma foi_ = "I am ever to be trusted."

Cf. _Si vous m'en croyez_ = "If you will be guided by me."

NOTE. This generalization mainly results in a figurative force; E.g., _En venir à_ = "to be reduced to;" _en passer par là_ = "to have to submit to that."

VOCABULARY

A

à, to, for, with, in. abaisser, to lower, abase; s'--, to bow down. abandonner, to abandon, deliver up, forsake. abattre, to beat down. abîme, m., abyss, chasm. abolir, to abolish, wipe out. abondance, f., abundance. abri, m., shelter; mettre à l'--, to shield. absolu, absolute. abuser, to deceive. accabler, to overwhelm, crush. accepter, to accept; ne pas --, to decline. accompagner, to accompany. accord, m., chord (_of music_). accorder, to grant. accourir, to run, flock. acheter, to buy. achever (de), to finish. acte, m., act. action, f., action, deed. adieu, farewell. admettre, to admit. admirer, to admire, marvel at. adopter, to adopt. adorer, to worship. adoucir, to soften. adresser (s'), to appeal, adroit, skilful, clever. adultère, criminal. affecter de, to claim to. affliger, to distress. affranchir, to rid. affreu-x, -se, hideous, awful. affront, m., affront, insult. affronter, to brave. âge, m., age, years. agir, to act; -- sur, to work upon. agité, tossed; -- de, disturbed, fretting over. agiter, to disturb. agneau, m., lamb. agreable, agreeable, sweet, acceptable. aider, to aid, assist. aïeux, m. pl., ancestors, forefathers. aigrir, to sour, embitter. aile, f., wing. ailleurs, elsewhere. aimable, lovable, sweet, easy. aimer, to love. ainsi, thus; -- quo, as well as; il en est -- de, such is the case with. airain, m., brass. alarme, f., alarm, fear. alarmé, alarmed, frightened. allegresse, f., joy. aller, to go. allumer, to light, kindle. alors, then, at the time, in those days. altéré de, thirsting for. alternativement, alternately. alti-er, -ère, haughty. Amalécite, Amalekite. Aman, Haman. amas, m., heap. amasser, to heap up, collect. amateur, m., lover. ame, f., soul. amener, to bring, bring round. amertume, f., bitterness. ami (de), m., friend (_to_). amitié, f., friendship, affection. amour, m., love. an, m., year. anéantir, to bring to naught. ange, m., angel. animé, animated; -- a, keen, bent upon; -- de, fired with. annales, f. pl., (_yearly_) records. annoncer, to announce, bring news. antique, ancient, aged. apaiser, to appease, s'--, to be appeased. appareil, m., show. appartement, m., apartment, room, private rooms. appeler, to call, summon, court; faire --, to summon. appesanti, weighing, laid heavily. applaudir, to applaud; s'-- de, to enjoy, rejoice in. apprendre, to learn, teach, tell. apprêter, to make ready. approcher (de), to draw near, be nigh to. appui, m., aid, support, might. appuyer, to confirm, s'-- sur, to lean upon. après, after. aquilon, m., north-wind. arbitre, m., master, lord. ardent, glowing. arme, f., arm, weapon. armée, f., army, host. armer, to arm, use as a weapon; s'--, to take up arms. arracher, to tear off. arrêt, m., decree, order, doom. arrêter, to restrain. arriver, to arrive, come round. artifice, m., art, artfulness, cunning, deception, malice. Asie, f; Asia. asile, m., asylum, refuge, abode. aspect, m., aspect, sight. aspirer à, to strive to. assassinat, m., assassination, murder. assassiner, to murder. assembler, to assemble, gather together. asaeoir, to seat; s'--, to sit. assez, enough. assidu (à), constant (_in_). assiéger, to besiege. assurer, to make sure, safeguard, reassure. astre, m., star (_i.e. any heavenly body_). atours, m. pl., attire, garments. attacher, to bind, fasten, rivet. atteinte, f., impression. attendre, to await, wait for, expect. attentat, m., crime. attenti-f, -ve, attentive. attester, to call upon. attirer, to attract, provoke. attrait, m., attraction, charm, spell. audace, f., audacity. audacieu-x, -se, audacious, bold; m., bold person. auguste, august, noble, royal. aujourd'hui, to-day. auprès de, near, about, by the side of. aurore, f., dawn. aussi, also. aussitôt, at once, instantly. austère, strict. austérité, f., austerity, seriousness. autant (que), as much (_as_); d'-- moins, so much the less. autel, m., altar. auteur, m., author; les --s de mes jours, the authors of my being; i.e. my parents. autre, other, different, another. autrefois, former, of yore. autrui, m., other people, others. avancer (s'), to advance. avant, before (_in time_); -- tout, first of all. avantage, m., advantage, privilege, merit. avec, with. avenir, m., future. aversion, f., aversion, dislike, hatred. aveugle, blind. aveuglement, m., blindness. aveugler, to blind. avide (de), greedy, thirsting (_for_). avis, m., opinion, advice, notice, information. avoir, to have. avouer, to confess,

B

baiser, to kiss. baisser, to lower. balance, f., scales. bandeau, m., fillet, (_part of royal headdress_). bannir, to banish. barbare, barbarous. barriere, f., barrier, rampart, defence, bas, -se, low. bassesse, f., evil. beau, bel, belle, beautiful beaucoup, much. beauté, f., beauty. bénir, to bless. besoin, m., need. bien, well. bien, m., blessing; --s, wealth. bien-fait, m., benefit, service, favor, blessing. bienheureu-x, -se, happy, thrice happy. bientôt, soon. blasphémer, to blaspheme. boire, to drink. bon, -ne, good, kind. bonheur, m., happiness, success. bonté, f., goodness; --s, mercies. bord, m., edge, shore. borne, f., limit. borner, to limit. bouche, f., mouth, lips. bout, m., end. bras, m., arm. braver, to defy. breuvage, m., beverage. bride, f., bridle. brigue, f., canvass, party. briguer, to canvass for, solicit, brillant, brilliant, bright. briller, to shine. briser, to break, dash. bruit, m., noise, rumor, report. but, m., goal.

C

cabale, f., cabal, plot. cacher (à), to hide (_from_). calme, m., calm, peace. calme, calm. calmer, to calm. calomnie, f., calumny. campagne, f., fields. cantique, m., hymn. caprice, m., fickleness, capriciousness. capti-f, -ve, m., f., captive, prisoner, slave; also adj. captivité, f., captivity. carnage, m., slaughter. cause, f., case. causer, to cause, give. ce, cet, m., cette, f., this, that, it; ces, pl., these, those. cèdre, m., cedar. célèbre, celebrated, famous. célébrer, to celebrate, sing. celui, m., celle, f., he, she, the one; ceux, m. pl; celles, f. pl., those. cendre, f., ashes. cent, a hundred. cependant, meanwhile, however. certain, certain, assured. cesser, to cease. chacun, each. chagrin, m., grief, gloom. Chaldée, f., Chaldaea. Chaldéen, m., Chaldee. chaleur, f., heat, warmth. chambre, f., chamber, room. champ, m., field. chanceler, to stagger, waver. chant, m., song. chanter, to sing. chaque, each, every, charmant, delightful. charmer, to charm, soothe. chasser, to chase, drive away. châtier, to chastise, punish. châtiment, m., punishment. chef, m., chief. chemin, m., road, path, way. ch-er, -ère, dear, precious. chercher, to seek. chéri, cherished, beloved. chérir, to love, cherish. cheveux, m. pl., hair. chez, at _or_ in, _or_ to the house _or_ apartments of. choeur, m., chorus. choisir, to choose. choix, m., choice. chose, f., thing; quelque --, something, anything. chute, f., fall, downfall. ciel, m., cieux, pl., sky, heaven. cilice, m., hair-shirt. clarté, f., tight; --s, wisdom. clemence, f., clemency, mercy. climat, m., climate, clime. coeur, m., heart. colère, f., anger, wrath. colombe, f., dove. combat, m., battle. combattre, to combat, fight. combien, how, how much. comble, m., height; pour -- de gloire, for crowning glory. combler de, to load with (_good things_). commander, to command, bid. comme, as, like, how. commencer, to begin. commettre, to commit; entrust. compagne, f., companion. comparaître, to appear (_in answer to summons_). comparer, to compare. complot, m., plot. compter, to count, reckon, hold. condamnable, blameworthy. condamner, to condemn. conduire, to conduct, lead, guide, bring about. conduite, f., conduct, practice; ordering, management. confiance, f., trust. confident, -e, confidant, confidential friend. confier, to confide; se -- to trust. confondre, to confound, put to confusion. conforme, suitable. confus, confused, troubled. conjurer, to beseech. connaître, to know, distinguish, spare. consacrer, to commemorate. conseil, m., counsel, advice; council. conserver, to preserve. conspirer, to agree. consulter, to consult. consumer, to consume. contempler, to gaze upon. content, glad, satisfied. contenter, to satisfy. coner, to relate. contraire, contrary; au --, on the contrary. contre, against. contrée, f., region, land. contre-temps, m., untoward event, accident. convier, to invite. corps, m., body. corriger, to correct. côté, m., side; de tous --s, on all sides. couchant, m., setting sun, west. couler, to now. couleur, f., color, false color, false reason. coup, m., blow; tout à --, suddenly; encore un --, once more. coupable, guilty; m., offender. coupe, f., cup, goblet. couple, m., pair. cour, f., court. courber, to bend; se -- to bow down. courir, to run. couronner, to crown. courroux, m., wrath. cours, m., course, vent. coursier, m., charger (_horse_). couteau, m., (_sacrificial_) knife. couvrir, to cover. craindre, to fear. crainte, f., fear. crédit, m., influence, power. crédule, credulous. cri, m., cry. crier, to shout. criminel, criminal. croire, to believe, think. croître, to increase. cruauté, f., cruelty. culte, m., worship, religion. curieu-x, -se, curious, inquisitive; désir --, curiosity.

D