Part 41

The Port-Royalists seem to me in some respects far behind Comenius, but they were right in rejecting him as a methodiser in language-learning. Lancelot in the preface to his “Garden of Greek Roots,” says that the _Janua_ of Comenius is totally wanting in method. “It would need,” says he, “an extraordinary memory; and from my experience I should say that few children could learn this book, for it is long and difficult; and as the words in it are not repeated, those at the beginning would be forgotten before the learner reached the end. So he would feel a constant discouragement, because he would always find himself in a new country where he would recognize nothing. And the book is full of all sorts of uncommon and difficult words, and the first chapters throw no light on those which follow.” To this well-grounded criticism he adds: “The _entrances to the Tongues_, to deserve its name, should be nothing but a short and simple way leading us as soon as possible to read the best books in the language, so that we might not only acquire the words we are in need of, but also all that is most characteristic in the idiom and pure in the phraseology, which make up the most difficult and most important part of every language.” (Quoted by Cadet, p. 17).

[94] Lemaître, a nephew of La Mère Angélique, was one of the most celebrated orators in France. In renouncing the world for Port-Royal, he retired from a splendid position at the Bar. Such men had qualifications out of the reach of ordinary schoolmasters. Dufossé, in after years, told how, when he was a boy, Lemaître called him often to his room and gave him solid instruction in learning and piety. “He read to me and made me read pieces from poets and orators, and saw that I noticed the beauties in them both in thought and diction. Moreover he taught me the right emphasis and articulation both in verse and prose, in which he himself was admirable, having the charm of a fine voice and all else that goes to make a great orator. He gave me also many rules for good translation and for making my progress in that art easy to me.” (Dufossé’s _Mémoires, &c._, quoted by Cadet, p. 9.) It was Lemaître who instructed Racine (born 1639, admitted at Les Granges, Port Royal des Champs, in 1655).

[95] In 1670 the General of the Jesuits issued a letter to the Society against the Cartesian philosophy. The University in this agreed with its rivals, and petitioned the Parliament to prohibit the Cartesian teaching. This produced the burlesque _Arrêt_ by Boileau (1675). “Whereas it is stated that for some years past a stranger named Reason has endeavoured to make entry by force into the Schools of the University ... where Aristotle has always been acknowledged as judge without appeal and not accountable for his opinions.... Be it known by these presents that this Court has maintained and kept and does maintain and keep the said Aristotle in perfect and peaceable possession of the said schools ... and in order that for the future he may not be interfered with in them, it has banished Reason for ever from the Schools of the said University, and forbids his entry to disturb and disquiet the said Aristotle in the possession and enjoyment of the aforesaid schools, under pain and penalty of being declared a Jansenist and a lover of innovations.” (Quoted by Cadet, p. 34.)

[96] Although so much time is given to the study of words, practice in the use of words is almost entirely neglected, and the English schoolboy remains inarticulate.

[97] Rollin somewhat extends Quintilian’s statement: “The desire of learning rests in the will which you cannot force.” About attempts to coerce the will in the absence of interest, I may quote a passage from a lecture of mine at Birmingham in 1884, when I did not know that I had behind me such high authorities as Quintilian and Rollin: “I should divide the powers of the mind that may be cultivated in the school-room into two classes: in the first I should put all the higher powers—grasp of meaning, perception of analogy, observation, reflection, imagination, intellectual memory; in the other class is one power only, and that is a kind of memory that depends on the association of sounds. How is it then that in most school-rooms far more time is spent in cultivating this last and least-valuable power than all the rest put together? The explanation is easy. All the higher powers can be exercised only when the pupils are interested, or, as Mr. Thring puts it, ‘care for what they are about.’ The memory that depends on associating sounds is independent of interest and can be secured by simple repetition. Now it is very hard to awaken interest, and still harder to maintain it. That magician’s wand, the cane, with which the schoolmasters of olden time worked such wonders, is powerless here or powerful only in the negative direction; and so is every form of punishment. You may tell a boy—‘If you can’t say your lesson you shall stay in and write it out half-a-dozen times!’ and the threat may have effect; but no ‘_instans tyrannus_’ from Orbilius downwards has ever thought of saying, ‘If you don’t take an interest in your work, I’ll keep you in till you do!’ So teachers very naturally prefer the kind of teaching in which they can make sure of success.”

[98] Here as usual Rollin uses Quintilian without directly quoting him. He gives in a note the passage he had in his mind. “Id imprimis cavere oportebit, ne studia qui amare nondum potest oderit; et amaritudinem semel præceptam etiam ultra rudes annos reformidet (Quint., lib. j, cap. 1.)”

[99] Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel were also in this sense realists, but they held that the educational value of knowledge lay not in itself, but only in so far as it was an instrument for developing the faculties of the mind.

[100] Henry Barnard (_English Pedagogy_, second series, p. 192), speaks of Hoole as “one of the pioneer educators of his century.” According to Barnard he was born at Wakefield, in 1610, and died in 1666, rector of “Stock Billerica” (perhaps Stock with Billericay), in Essex.

[101] A very interesting suggestion of Cowley’s is that another house be built for poor men’s sons who show ability. These shall be brought up “with the same conveniences that are enjoyed even by rich men’s children (though they maintain the fewer for that cause), there being nothing of eminent and illustrious to be expected from a low, sordid, and hospital-like education.”

[102] It would seem as if these Puritans were more active in body than in mind: even the seniors, like the children at Port-Royal, _tombent dans la nonchalance_. Dury has to lay it down that “the Governour and Ushers and Steward if they be in health should not go to bed till ten.” (p. 30.)

[103] It is a sign of the failure of all attempts to establish educational science in England that though the meaning of “real” and “realities” which connected them with _res_ seemed established in the sixteen hundreds, our language soon lost it again. According to a writer in _Meyer’s Conversations Lexicon_ (first edition) “_reales_” in this sense occurs first in Taubmann, 1614. Whether this is correct or not it was certainly about this time that there arose a contest between _Humanismus_ and _Realismus_, a contest now at its height in the _Gymnasien_ and _Realschulen_ of Germany. For a discussion of it, _see_ M. Arnold’s “Literature and Science,” referred to above (p. 154).

[104] Many of Petty’s proposals are now realized in the South Kensington Museum.

[105] Later in the century Locke recommended that “working schools should be set up in every parish,” (_see_ Fox-Bourne’s _Locke_, or Cambridge edition of the _Thoughts c. Ed._, App. A, p. 189). The Quakers seem to have early taken up “industrious education.” John Bellers, whose _Proposals for Raising a College of Industry_ (1696) was reprinted by Robt. Owen, has some very good notions. After advising that boys and girls be taught to knit, spin, &c., and the bigger boys turning, &c., he says, “Thus the Hand employed brings Profit, _the Reason used in it makes wise_, and the Will subdued makes them good” (_Proposals_, p. 18). Years afterwards in a Letter to the Yearly Meeting (dated 1723), he says, “It may be observed that some of the Boys in Friends’ Workhouse in Clerkenwell by their present employment of spinning are capable to earn their own living.”

[106] Petty does not lose sight of the body. The “educands” are to “use such exercises whether in work or for recreation as tend to the health, agility, and strength of their bodies.”

I have quoted Petty from the very valuable collection of English writings on Education reprinted in Henry Barnard’s _English Pedagogy_, 2 vols. Petty is in Vol. I. In this vol. we have plenty of evidence of the working of the Baconian spirit; _e.g._, we find Sir Matthew Hale in a _Letter of Advice to his Grandchildren_, written in 1678, saying that there is little use or improvement in “notional speculations in logic or philosophy delivered by others; the rather because bare speculations and notions have little experience and external observation to confirm them, and they rarely fix the minds especially of young men. But that part of philosophy that is real may be improved and confirmed by daily observation, and is more stable and yet more certain and delightful, and goes along with a man all his life, whatever employment or profession he undertakes.”

[107] “In this respect,” says Professor Masson, “the passion and the projects of Comenius were a world wider than Milton’s.” (_L. of M._ iij, p. 237.)

[108] _Of Education. To Master Samuel Hartlib_ (“the Tractate” as it is usually called), was published by Milton first in 1644, and again in 1673. _See_ Oscar Browning’s edition, Cambridge Univ. Press.

[109] The University of Cambridge. The first examination was in June, 1880.

[110] “Believe it, my good friend, to love truth for truth’s sake is the principal part of human perfection in this world and the seed-plot of all other virtues.” L. to Bolde, quoted by Fowler, _Locke_, p. 120. This shows us that according to Locke “the principal part of human perfection” is to be found in the intellect.

[111] Lady Masham seems to consider these two characteristics identical. She wrote to Leclerc of Locke after his death: “He was always, in the greatest and in the smallest affairs of human life, as well as in speculative opinions, disposed to follow reason, whosoever it were that suggested it; he being ever a faithful servant, I had almost said a slave, to truth; never abandoning her for anything else, and following her for her own sake purely” (quoted by Fox-Bourne). But it is one thing to desire truth, and another to think one’s own reasoning power the sole means of obtaining it.

[112] “I am far from imagining myself infallible; but yet I should be loth to differ from any thinking man; being fully persuaded there are very few things of pure speculation wherein two thinking men who impartially seek truth can differ if they give themselves the leisure to examine their hypotheses and understand one another” (L. to W. M., 26 Dec., 1692). Again he writes: “I am persuaded that upon debate you and I cannot be of two opinions, nor I think any two men used to think with freedom, who really prefer truth to opiniatrety and a little foolish vain-glory of not having made a mistake” (L. to W. M., 3 Sept., 1694).

[113] Compare Carlyle:—“Except thine own eye have got to see it, except thine own soul have victoriously struggled to clear vision and belief of it, what is the thing seen or the thing believed by another or by never so many others? Alas, it is not thine, though thou look on it, brag about it, and bully and fight about it till thou die, striving to persuade thyself and all men how much it is thine! Not _it_ is thine, but only a windy echo and tradition of it bedded [an echo _bedded_?] in hypocrisy, ending sure enough in tragical futility is thine.” Froude’s _Thos. Carlyle_, ij, 10. Similarly Locke wrote to Bolde in 1699:—“To be learned in the lump by other men’s thoughts, and to be right by saying after others is much the easier and quieter way; but how a rational man that should enquire and know for himself can content himself with a faith or religion taken upon trust, or with such a servile submission of his understanding as to admit all and nothing else but what fashion makes passable among men, is to me astonishing.” Quoted by Fowler, _Locke_, p. 118.

[114] For Rabelais, _see_ p. 67 _supra_.

In the notes to the Cambridge edition of the _Thoughts_ Locke’s advice on physical education is discussed and compared with the results of modern science by Dr. J. F. Payne.

[115] “Examinations directed, as the paper examinations of the numerous examining boards now flourishing are directed, to finding out what the pupil knows, have the effect of concentrating the teacher’s effort upon the least important part of his function.” Mark Pattison in _N. Quart. M._, January, 1880.

[116] Michelet (_Nos fils_, chap. ij. _ad f._ p. 170), says of Montaigne’s essay: “c’est déjà une belle esquisse, vive et forte, une tentative pour donner, _non l’objet_, le savoir, mais _le sujet_, c’est l’homme.”

[117] Pope seems to contrast Montaigne and Locke:

“But ask not to what doctors I apply! “Sworn to no master, of no sect am I: “As drives the storm, at any door I knock, “And house with Montaigne now, or now with Locke.”

_Satires_ iij., 26.

Perhaps as Dr. Abbott suggests he took Montaigne as representing active and Locke contemplative life.

[118] _See_ “An introduction to the History of Educational Theories,” by Oscar Browning.

[119] “History and the mathematics, I think, are the most proper and advantageous studies for persons of your quality; the other are fitter for schoolmen and people that must live by their learning, though a little insight and taste of them will be no burthen or inconvenience to you, especially Natural Philosophy.” _Advice to a young Lord written by his father_, 1691, p. 29.

[120] “Il n’y a point avant la raison de véritable éducation pour l’homme.” (_N. H._, 5th P., Lett. 3. Conf. _supra_, p. 227.)

[121] “La première éducation doit donc être purement négative. Elle consiste, non point à enseigner la vertu ni la vérité, mais à garantir le cœur du vice et l’esprit de l’erreur. Si vous pouviez ne rien faire et ne rien laisser faire; si vous pouviez amener votre élève sain et robuste à l’âge de douze ans, sans qu’il sût distinguer sa main droite de sa main gauche, dès vos premières leçons les yeux de son entendement s’ouvriraient à la raison; sans préjugés, sans habitudes, il n’aurait rien en lui qui pût contrarier l’effet de vos soins. Bientôt il deviendrait entre vos mains le plus sage des hommes; et, en commençant par ne rien faire, vous auriez fait un prodige d’éducation.” _Ém._ ij., 80.

[122] “Exercez son corps, ses organes, ses sens, ses forces, mais tenez son âme oisive aussi longtemps qu’il se pourra. Redoutez tous les sentiments antérieurs au jugement qui les apprécie. Retenez, arrêtez les impressions étrangères: et, pour empêcher le mal de naître, ne vous pressez point de faire le bien; car il n’est jamais tel que quand la raison l’éclaire. Regardez tous les délais comme des avantages: c’est gagner beaucoup que d’avancer vers le terme sans rien perdre; laissez mûrir l’enfance dans les enfants. Enfin quelque leçon leur devient-elle nécessaire, gardez-vous de la donner aujourd’hui, si vous pouvez différer jusqu’à demain sans danger.” _Ém._ ij., 80.

[123] “Effrayez-vous donc peu de cette oisiveté prétendue. Que diriez-vous d’un homme qui, pour mettre toute la vie à profit, ne voudrait jamais dormir? Vous diriez: Cet homme est insensé; il ne jouit pas du temps, il se l’ôte; pour fuir le sommeil il court à la mort. Songez donc que c’est ici la même chose, et que l’enfance est le sommeil de la raison.” _Ém._ ij., 99.

[124] “Il n’y a pas de philosophie plus superficielle que celle qui, prenant l’homme comme un être égoïste et viager, prétend l’expliquer et lui tracer ses devoirs en dehors de la société dont il est une partie. Autant vaut considérer l’abeille abstraction faite de la ruche, et dire qu’à elle seule l’abeille construit son alvéole.” Renan, _La Réforme_, 312.

[125] “Tout est bien, sortant des mains de l’Auteur des choses; tout dégénère entre les mains de l’homme.”

[126] “Nous naissons faibles, nous avons besoin de forces; nous naissons dépourvus de tout, nous avons besoin d’assistance; nous naissons stupides, nous avons besoin de jugement. Tout ce que nous n’avons pas à notre naissance, et dont nous avons besoin étant grands, nous est donné par l’éducation. Cette éducation nous vient ou de la nature, ou des hommes, ou des choses. Le développement interne de nos facultés et de nos organes est l’éducation de la nature; l’usage qu’on nous apprend à faire de ce développement est l’éducation des hommes; et l’acquis de notre propre expérience sur les objets qui nous affectent est l’éducation des choses.” _Ém._ j., 6.

[127] “Puisque le concours des trois éducations est nécessaire à leur perfection, c’est sur celle à laquelle nous ne pouvons rien qu’il faut diriger les deux autres.” _Ém._ j., 7.

[128] “Vivre ce n’est pas respirer, c’est agir; c’est faire usage de nos organes, de nos sens, de nos facultés, de toutes les parties de nous-mêmes qui nous donnent le sentiment de notre existence. L’homme qui a le plus vécu n’est pas celui qui a compté le plus d’années, mais celui qui a le plus senti la vie.” _Ém._ j., 13.

[129] “On ne connaît point l’enfance: sur les fausses idées qu’on en a, plus on va, plus on s’égare. Les plus sages s’attachent à ce qu’il importe aux hommes de savoir, sans considérer ce que les enfants sont en état d’apprendre. Ils cherchent toujours l’homme dans l’enfant, sans penser à ce qu’il est avant que d’être homme. Voilà l’êtude à laquelle je me suis le plus appliqué, afin que, quand toute ma méthode serait chimérique et fausse, on pût toujours profiter de mes observations. Je puis avoir très-mal vu ce qu’il faut faire; mais je crois avoir bien vu le sujet sur lequel on doit opérer. Commencez donc par mieux étudier vos élèves; car très-assurément vous ne les connaissez point.”

[130] “La nature veut que les enfants soient enfants avant que d’être hommes. Si nous voulons pervertir cet ordre, nous produirons des fruits précoces qui n’auront ni maturité ni saveur, et ne tarderont pas à se corrompre: nous aurons de jeunes docteurs et de vieux enfants. L’enfance a des manières de voir, de penser, de sentir, qui lui sont propres; rien n’est moins sensé que d’y vouloir substituer les nôtres.” _Ém._ ij., 75; also in _N. H._, 478.

[131] “Nous ne savons jamais nous mettre à la place des enfants; nous n’entrons pas dans leurs idées, nous leur prêtons les nôtres; et, suivant toujours nos propres raisonnements, avec des chaînes de vérités nous n’entassons qu’extravagances et qu’erreurs dans leur tête.” _Ém._ iij., 185.

[132] “Je voudrais qu’un homme judicieux nous donnât un traité de l’art d’observer les enfants. Cet art serait très-important à connaître: les pères et les maîtres n’en ont pas encore les éléments.” _Ém._ iij., 224.

[133] Rousseau says: “Full of what is going on in your own head, you do not see the effect you produce in their head: Pleins de ce qui se passe dans votre tête vous ne voyez pas l’effet que vous produisez dans la leur.” (_Ém._ lib. ij., 83.)

[134] “Or, toutes les études forcées de ces pauvres infortunés tendent à ces objets entièrement étrangers à leurs esprits. Qu’on juge de l’attention qu’ils y peuvent donner. Les pédagogues qui nous étalent en grand appareil les instructions qu’ils donnent à leurs disciples sont payés pour tenir un autre langage: cependant on voit, par leur propre conduite, qu’ils pensent exactement comme moi. Car que leur apprennent-ils enfin? Des mots, encore des mots, et toujours des mots. Parmi les diverses sciences qu’ils se vantent de leur enseigner, ils se gardent bien de choisir celles qui leur seraient véritablement utiles, parce que ce seraient des sciences de choses, et qu’ils n’y réussiraient pas; mais celles qu’on paraît savoir quand on en sait les termes, le blason, la géographie, la chronologie, les langues, etc.; toutes études si loin de l’homme, et surtout de l’enfant, que c’est une merveille si rien de tout cela lui peut être utile une seule fois en sa vie.” _Ém._ ij., 100.

[135] “En quelque étude que ce puisse être, sans l’idée des choses représentées, les signes représentants ne sont rien. On borne pourtant toujours l’enfant à ces signes, sans jamais pouvoir lui faire comprendre aucune des choses qu’ils représentent.” _Ém._ ij., 102.

[136] “Non, si la nature donne au cerveau d’un enfant cette souplesse qui le rend propre à recevoir toutes sortes d’impressions, ce n’est pas pour qu’on y grave des noms de rois, des dates, des termes de blason, de sphère, de géographie, et tous ces mots sans aucun sens pour son âge et sans aucune utilité pour quelque âge que ce soit, dont on accable sa triste et stérile enfance; mais c’est pour que toutes les idées qu’il peut concevoir et qui lui sont utiles, toutes celles qui se rapportent à son bonheur et doivent l’éclairer un jour sur ses devoirs, s’y tracent de bonne heure en caractères ineffaçables, et lui servent à se conduire pendant sa vie d’une manière convenable à son être et à ses facultés.” _Ém._ ij., 105; also _N. H._, P. v., L. 3.

Sans étudier dans les livres, l’espèce de mémoire que peut avoir un enfant ne reste pas pour cela oisive; tout ce qu’il voit, tout ce qu’il entend le frappe, et il s’en souvient; il tient registre en lui-même des actions, des discours des hommes; et tout ce qui l’environne est le livre dans lequel, sans y songer, il enrichit continuellement sa mémoire, en attendant que son jugement puisse en profiter. C’est dans le choix de ces objets, c’est dans le soin de lui présenter sans cesse ceux qu’il peut connaître, et de lui cacher ceux qu’il doit ignorer, que consiste le véritable art de cultiver en lui cette première faculté; et c’est par là qu’il faut tâcher de lui former un magasin de connaissances qui servent à son éducation durant sa jeunesse, et à sa conduite dans tous les temps. Cette méthode, il est vrai, ne forme point de petits prodiges et ne fait pas briller les gouvernantes et les précepteurs; mais elle forme des hommes judicieux, robustes, sains de corps et d’entendement, qui, sans s’être fait admirer étant jeunes, se font honorer étant grands.

[137] “L’activité défaillante se concentre dans le cœur du vieillard; dans celui de l’enfant elle est surabondante et s’étend au dehors; il se sent, pour ainsi dire, assez de vie pour animer tout ce qui l’environne. Qu’il fasse ou qu’il défasse, il n’importe; il suffit qu’il change l’état des choses, et tout changement est une action. Que s’il semble avoir plus de penchant à détruire, ce n’est point par méchanceté, c’est que l’action qui forme est toujours lente, et que celle qui détruit, étant plus rapide, convient mieux à sa vivacité.” _Ém._ j., 47.

[138] It would be difficult to find a man more English, in a good sense, than the present Lord Derby or, whether we say it in praise or dispraise, a man less like Rousseau. So it is interesting to find him in agreement with Rousseau in condemning the ordinary restraints of the school-room. “People are beginning to find out what, if they would use their own observation more, and not follow one another like sheep, they would have found out long ago, that it is doing positive harm to a young child, mental and bodily harm, to keep it learning or pretending to learn, the greater part of the day. Nature says to a child, ‘Run about,’ the schoolmaster says, ‘Sit still;’ and as the schoolmaster can punish on the spot, and Nature only long afterwards, he is obeyed, and health and brain suffer.”—_Speech in 1864._