Part 3

Middle Age system fell in 18th century 240

Do the opposite to the usual 241

Family life. No education before reason 242

Rousseau “neglects” essentials. Lose time 243

Early education negative 244

Childhood the sleep of reason 245

Start from study of the child 246

Rousseau’s paradoxes un-English 247

Man the corrupter. The three educations 248

The aim, living thoroughly 249

Children not small men 250

Schoolmasters’ contempt for childhood 251

Schoolroom rubbish 252

Ideas before symbols 253

Right ideas for children 254

Child-gardening. Child’s activity 255

No sitting still or reading 256

Memory without books 257

Use of the senses in childhood 258

Intellect based on the senses 259

Cultivation of the senses 260

Music and drawing 261

Drawing from objects. Morals 262

Contradictory statements on morals 263

The material world and the moral 264

Shun over-directing 265

Lessons out of school. Questioning. At 12 266

No book-learning. Study of nature 267

Against didactic teaching 268

Rousseau exaggerates about self-teaching 269

Learn with effort 270

Hand-work. The “New Education” 271

The Teacher’s business 272

=Chapter XV.—Basedow and the Philanthropinum= 273-289

Basedow tries to mend religion and teaching 274

Reform needed. Subscription for “Elementary” 275

A journey with Goethe 276

Goethe on Basedow 277

The Philanthropinum opened 278

Basedow’s “Elementary” and “Book of Method” 279

Subjects to be taught 280

French and Latin. Religion 281

“Fred’s Journey to Dessau” 282

At the Philanthropinum 283

Methods in the Philanthropinum 284

The Philanthropinum criticised 285

Basedow’s improvements in teaching children 286

Basedow’s successors 287

Kant on the Philanthropinum 288

Influence of Philanthropinists 289

=Chapter XVI.—Pestalozzi. (1746-1827.)= 290-383

His childhood and student-life 291

A Radical Student 292

Turns farmer. Bluntschli’s warning 293

New ideas in farming. A love letter 294

Resolutions. Buys land and marries 295

Pestalozzi turns to education 296

Neuhof filled with children 297

Appeal for the new Institution 298

Bankruptcy. The children sent away 299

Eighteen years of poverty and distress 300

“Gertrude” to the rescue. Pestalozzi’s religion 301

He turns author. “E. H. of Hermit” 302

Pestalozzi’s belief 303

The “Hermit” a Christian 304

Success of “Leonard and Gertrude” 305

Gertrude’s patience tried 306

Being and doing before knowing 307

Pestalozzi’s severity. Women Commissioners 308

Pestalozzi’s seven years of authorship 309

“Citizen of French Republic.” Doubts 310

Waiting. Pestalozzi’s “Inquiry” 311

Pestalozzi’s “Fables” 312

Pestalozzi’s own principles 313

Pestalozzi’s return to action 314

The French at Stanz 315

Pestalozzi at Stanz 316

Success and expulsion 317

At Stanz: Pestalozzi’s own account 318-332

Value of the five months’ experience 333

Pestalozzi a strange Schoolmaster 334

At Burgdorf. First official approval 335

A child’s notion of Pestalozzi’s teaching 336

Pestalozzi engineering a new road 337

Psychologizing instruction 338

School course. Singing; and the beautiful 339

Pestalozzi’s poverty. Kruesi joins him 340

Pestalozzi’s assistants. The Burgdorf Institute 341

Success of the Burgdorf Institute 342

Reaction. Pestalozzi and Napoleon I 343

Fellenberg, Pestalozzi goes to Yverdun 344

A portrait of Pestalozzi 345

Prussia adopts Pestalozzianism 346

Ritter and others at Yverdun 347

Causes of failure at Yverdun 348

Report made by Father Girard 349

Girard’s mistake. Schmid in flight 350

Schmid’s return. Pestalozzi’s fame found useful 351

Dr. Bell’s visit. Death of Mrs. Pestalozzi 352

Works republished. Clindy. Yverdun left. Death 353, 354

New aim: develop organism 354

True dignity of man 355

Education for all. Mothers’ part. Jacob’s Ladder 356

Educator only superintends 357

First, moral development 358

Moral and religious the same 359

Second, intellectual development 360

Learning by “intuition” 361

Buisson and Jullien on intuition 362

Pestalozzi and Locke 363

Subjects for, and art of, teaching 364

“Mastery” 365

The body’s part in education 366

Learning must not be play 367

Singing and drawing 368

Morf’s summing-up 369

Joseph Payne’s summing-up 370

The “two nations.” Mother’s lessons 371

Mistakes in teaching children 372

Children and their teachers 373

“Preparatory” Schools 374

Young boys ill taught at school 375

English folk-schools not Pestalozzian 376

Schools judged by results 377

Pupil-teachers. Teaching not educating 378

Lowe or Pestalozzi? 379

Chief force, personality of the teacher 380

English care for unessentials 381

Aim at the ideal 382

Use of theorists. Books 383

=Chapter XVII.—Friedrich Froebel. (1783-1852.)= 384-413

Difficulty in understanding Froebel 385

A lad’s quest of unity 386

Froebel wandering without rest 387

Finds his vocation. With Pestalozzi 388

Froebel at the Universities 389

Through the Freiheits-krieg. Mineralogy 390

The “New Education” started 391

At Keilhau. “Education of Man” published 392

Froebel fails in Switzerland 393

The first Kindergarten 394

Froebel’s last years. Prussian edict against him. His end 395

Author’s attitude towards Reformers 396

Difficulties with Froebel 397

“Cui omnia unum sunt” 398

Froebel’s ideal 399

Theory of development 400

Development through self-activity 401

True idea found in Nature 402

God acts and man acts 403

The formative and creative instinct 404

Rendering the inner outer 405

Care for “young plants.” Kindergarten 406

Child’s restlessness: how to use it 407

Employments in Kindergarten 408

No schoolwork in Kindergarten 409

Without the idea the “gifts” fail 410

The New Education and the old 411

The old still vigorous 412

Science the thought of God. Some Froebelians 413

=Chapter XVIII.—Jacotot, a Methodizer. (1770-1840.)= 414-438

Self-teaching 415

1. All can learn 416

2. Everyone can teach 417

Can he teach facts he does not know? 418

Languages? Sciences? 419

Arts such as drawing and music? 420

True teacher within the learner 421

Training rather than teaching 422

3. “Tout est dans tout.” Quidlibet ex quolibet 423

Connexion of knowledges 424

Connect with model book. Memorizing 425

Ways of studying the model book 426

Should the book be made or chosen? 427

Robertsonian plan 428

Hints for exercises 429

The good of having learnt 430

The old Cambridge “mathematical man” 431

Waste of memory at school 432

How to stop this waste 433

Multum, non multa. De Morgan. Helps. Stephen 434

Jacotot’s plan for reading and writing 435

For the mother-tongue 436

Method of investigation 437

Jacotot’s last days 438

=Chapter XIX.—Herbert Spencer= 439-469

Same knowledge for discipline and use? 440

Different stages, different knowledges 441

Relative value of knowledges 442

Knowledge for self-preservation 443

Useful knowledge _versus_ the classics 444

Special instruction _versus_ education 445

Scientific knowledge and money-making 446

Knowledge about rearing offspring 447

Knowledge of history: its nature and use 448

Use of history 449

Employment of leisure hours 450

Poetry and the Arts 451

More than science needed for complete living 452

Objections to Spencer’s curriculum 453

Citizen’s duties. Things not to teach 454

Need of a science of education 455

Hope of a science 456

From simple to complex: known to unknown 457

Connecting schoolwork with life outside 458

Books and life 459

Mistakes in grammar teaching 460

From indefinite to definite: concrete to abstract 461

The Individual and the Race. Empirical beginning 462

Against “telling.” Effect of bad teaching 463

Learning should be pleasurable 464

Can learning be made interesting? 465

Apathy from bad teaching 466

Should learning be made interesting? 467

Difference between theory and practice 468

Importance of Herbert Spencer’s work 469

=Chapter XX.—Thoughts and Suggestions= 470-491

Want of an ideal 471

Get pupils to work hard 472

For this arouse interest. Wordsworth 473

Interest needed for activity 474

Teaching young children 475

Value of pictures 476

Dr. Vater at Leipzig 477

Dr. Vogel and Dr. Vater 478

First knowledge of numbers. Grubé 479

Measuring and weighing. Reading-books 480

Respect for books. Grammar. Reading 481

Silent and Vocal Reading 482

Memorising poetry. Composition 483

Correcting exercises. Three kinds of books 484

No epitomes 485

Ascham, Bacon, Goldsmith, against them 486

Arouse interest. Dr. Arnold’s historical primer 487

A Macaulay, not Mangnall, wanted 488

Beginnings in history and geography 489

Tales of Travelers 490

Results positive and negative 491

=Chapter XXI.—The Schoolmaster’s Moral and Religious Influence= 492-503

Master’s power, how gained and lost 493

Masters, the open and the reserved 494

Danger of excess either way 495

High ideal. Danger of low practice 496

Harm from overworking teachers 497

Refuge in routine work. Small schools 498

Influence through the Sixth. Day schools wanted 499

Teaching religion in England and Germany 500

Religious teaching connected with worship 501

Education to goodness and piety 502

How to avoid narrowmindedness 503

=Chapter XXII.—Conclusion= 504-526

A growing science of education 505

Jesuits the first Reformers 506

The Jesuits cared for more than classics 507

Rabelais for “intuition” 508

Montaigne for educating mind and body 509

17th century reaction against books 510

Reaction not felt in schools and the Universities 511

Comenius begins science of education 512

Locke’s teacher a disposer of influence 513

Locke and public schools. Escape from “idols” 514

Rousseau’s clean sweep 515

Benevolence of Nature. Man disturbs 516

We arrange sequences, capitalise ideas 517

Loss and gain from tradition 518

Rousseau for observing and following 519

Rousseau exposed “school-learning” 520

Function of “things” in education 521

“New Education” started by Rousseau 522

Drawing out. Man and the other animals 523

Intuition. Man an organism, a doer and creator 524

Antithesis of Old and New Education 525

Drill needed. What the Thinkers do for us 526

=Appendix.= Class Matches. Words and Things. Books for Teachers, &c. 527-547

I

EFFECTS OF THE RENASCENCE.

§ 1. The history of education, much as it has been hitherto neglected, especially in England, must have a great future before it. If we ignore the Past we cannot understand the Present, or forecast the Future. In this book I am going to speak of Reformers or Innovators who aimed at changing what was handed down to them; but the Radical can no more escape from the Past, than the Conservative can stereotype it. It acts not by attraction only, but no less by repulsion. There have been thinkers in latter times who have announced themselves as the executioners of the Past and laboured to destroy all it has bequeathed to us. They have raised the ferocious cry, “_Vive la destruction! Vive la mort! Place à l’avenir!_ Hurrah for destruction! Hurrah for death! Make room for the world that is to be!” But their very hatred of the Past has brought them under the influence of it. “Do just the opposite of what has been done and you will do right,” said Rousseau; and this rule of negation would make the Past regulate the Present and the Future no less than its opposite, “Do always what is usual.”

If we cannot get free from the Past in the domain of thought, still less can we in action. Custom is to all our activities what the mainspring is to the watch. We may bring forces into play to make the watch go faster or slower, but if we took out the mainspring it would not go at all. For _our_ mainspring we are indebted to the Past.

§ 2. In studying the Past we must give our special attention to those periods in which the course of ideas takes, as the French say, a new bend.[3] Such a period was the Renascence. Then it was that the latest bend was given to the educational ideal of the civilized world; and though we seem now again to have arrived at a period of change, we are still, perhaps far more than we are aware, affected by the ideas of the great scholars who guided the intellect of Europe in the Revival of Learning.

§ 3. From the beginning to the end of the fifteenth century the balance was trembling between two kinds of culture, and the fate of the schoolboy depended on the result. In this century men first got a correct conception of the globe they were inhabiting. Hitherto they had not even professed to have any knowledge of geography; there is no mention of it in the Trivium and Quadrivium which were then supposed to form the cycle of things known, if not of things knowable. But Columbus and Vasco da Gama were grand teachers of geography, and their lessons were learnt as far as civilization extended.

The impetus thus given to the study of the earth might, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, have engrossed the mind of Europe with the material world, had not the leaning to physical science been encountered and overcome by an impulse derived from another discovery. About the time of the discovery of America there also came to light the literatures of Greece and Rome.