Chapter 11

NOTE that _let_ sometimes means _to allow, to give leave_, in which case the verb _lasi_ is used. Thus: let (allow) him come, _lasu lin veni_; leave it there, _lasu ĝin tie_.

The Imperative may be used interrogatively to translate the English _shall_, with an idea of wish or desire. Thus:

What shall I give you? _Kion mi donu al vi?_ What shall we do to-day? _Kion ni faru hodiaŭ?_

_What will he do?_ would of course be simply _Kion li faros?_--for there is here no question of desire or wish, but merely a question of future action.

The INFINITIVE Mood is used to express the mere idea of the verb, without any limit of person or number, and corresponds to the English _to_ before the verb. Thus: _kuri_, to run; _paroli_, to speak.

NOTE.--In Esperanto, as is largely the case in English, the mood and tense endings of the verb _do not vary_ according to person or number. For instance: _mi vidas_, I see, _li vidas_, he sees; also _ni vidis_, we saw, _ili vidis_, they saw; _vi vidos_, you will see; _oni vidos_, one will see; _ŝi vidus_, she would see, _vi vidus_, you would see.

Participles.

There are in Esperanto _six_ participles, three active and three passive, corresponding to three tenses. They are formed in the ACTIVE by means of the endings *-ant*, *-int*, and *-ont*, and in the PASSIVE by means of the endings *-at*, *-it*, *-ot*, with the addition of the adjectival termination *-a*. Thus:

ACTIVE. Present. | Past. | Future. _vidanta_, seeing | _vidinta_, having-seen | _vidonta_, about-to-see

PASSIVE. _vidata_, | _vidita_, | _vidota_, (being) seen | (having-been) seen | (about-to-be) seen

The PARTICIPLES may be used either as _Nouns_, _Adjectives_, or _Adverbs_, the terminations *-o*, *-a*, *-e* being added to the participial endings as required. When used as nouns or adjectives, they of course take the sign of the Plural (*-j*) and of the Accusative (*-n*) when the construction of the sentence so requires. Ex.:

(1) ACTIVE. _En la venonta jaro_, in the coming year. _La parolanto_, the speaker. _La aŭskultantoj_, the audience (_lit._, listeners). _Mi vidis lin skribantan_, I saw him writing. _Li foriris kurante_, he went off at a run. _Li revenis ne vidinte sian amikon_, he returned without having seen his friend.

(2) PASSIVE. _La ekzamenato_, the examinee. _La mortigitoj kaj vunditoj_, the killed and wounded. _Estimata sinjoro_, dear (_lit._, esteemed) sir. _Frapote, li sin defendis_, about to be struck, he defended himself. _Mi aŭdis tiun himnon kantatan_, I heard that hymn sung.

Compound Tenses.

The COMPOUND TENSES are formed by means of the auxiliary verb *esti*, to be. Thus, by the combination of the participles with the six tenses and moods, we obtain thirty-six compound tenses, enabling us to express with the utmost precision any time-relation whatsoever. We have in all:

_li estas_, or _estis_, or _estos_ { _vidanta_ or _vidata_ or _estus_, or _estu_, or _esti_ { _vidinta_ or _vidita_ { _vidonta_ or _vidota_

The use of the participles is very easy when once one grasps the fact that the auxiliary _esti_ serves to denote the particular division of time, or the particular manner, of the occurrence of the action denoted by the participle. Ex.:

_Li estis skribanta, kiam mi vidis lin_, he was writing when I saw him. _Li estis fininta, kiam mia amiko alvenis_, he had finished (_lit._, was having finished) when my friend arrived. _Mi estis tuj forironta, kiam vi aperis_, I was just about to go out when you appeared. _Li estas nunmomente parolanta_, he is speaking at this very moment. _Li estas mortonta_, he is about to die. _Li estus jam foririnta_, he would have already departed (_lit._, would be already gone away).

The word _by_ after a Passive is translated by the preposition *de*. Thus: The wood was being chopped by the boy, _la ligno estis hakata de la knabo_. He has been seen by all, _li estas vidita de ĉiuj_.

NOTE.--The COMPOUND TENSES should not be used if the SIMPLE TENSES suffice to show the meaning clearly. Thus, _I have seen him_ is more neatly expressed by _mi jam vidis lin_ than by _mi estas vidinta lin_. _Li jam foriris_ might stand for either _he had gone_ or _he has gone_, according to circumstances, and the context would clearly show which was meant. _Li parolas_ is generally quite right for _he is speaking_. _Li estas parolanta_ should be used only when it is particularly intended to show that he is _actually engaged_ in the act of speaking.

The Adverb.

In Esperanto, ADVERBS are denoted by the ending *-e*, and may be placed in any position, either before or after the verb. Thus: _bela_, beautiful--_bele_, beautifully; _vera_, true--_vere_, truly. _Li parolas saĝe_, he speaks wisely. _Li rapide kuras_, he runs quickly.

Adverbial Numbers.

ADVERBIAL NUMBERS are formed by adding *-e* to the Cardinals. Thus: _unue_ (_1e_), firstly; _trie_ (_3e_), thirdly; _sepe_ (_7e_), etc.

The Preposition.

In English, one preposition often has many different meanings. In Esperanto, on the contrary, every preposition, with the exception of the word _je_, has one precise and fixed meaning.

The preposition *je* is the only one in Esperanto without a definite meaning. It sometimes happens that one wishes to use a preposition of some sort or other, but is uncertain just which preposition will precisely express the idea. In such cases _je_ is used. Thus: He laughed _at_ me, _li ridis je mi_; full _of_ water, _plena je akvo_; six metres long, _longa je ses metroj_; fear _of_ him, _timo je li_, etc.

_Je_ should not be abused. Its too frequent use is a mark of the beginner in the language.

Use of Accusative.

When there is no ambiguity to be feared, the preposition _je_, and even other prepositions, are often omitted in Esperanto; and the word to which the preposition, if expressed, would have referred is put into the accusative. Thus, instead of saying _li ridas je mi_ (he is laughing at me), one might say _li ridas min_; similarly, _du metrojn alta_ would stand for _alta je du metroj_. _Ĝi kostis je tri ŝilingoj_ is more usually expressed: _ĝi kostis tri ŝilingojn_. _Mi restis tie dum kvin horoj_ (I stayed there for five hours) could be: _mi restis tie kvin horojn_; and so on.

Certain prepositions, viz., _antaŭ_, before, _ĉe_, at, _en_, in, _sub_, under, _sur_, on, _kontraŭ_, against, _super_, over, and _trans_, across, are often used to denote _movement towards_, whereas of themselves they only express _rest at_. In order to make it quite clear whether motion or rest is intended, use is made of the accusative. Thus: _li promenis en la urbo_, he took a walk _in_ the city; but _li promenis en la urbon_, he took a walk _into_ the city. _Li kuris antaŭ mi_, he ran (along) before or in front of me; but _li paŝis antaŭ min_, he stepped in front of me; and so on.

ADVERBS are sometimes used with prepositional force. Thus: _proksime de la domo_, near the house; _dekstre de la arbo_, on the right of the tree, etc.

The Conjunction.

A full list of CONJUNCTIONS will be found on §. 37. The following constructions should be noted:

Tenses after _Ke_ (that).

_Mi vidis, ke ŝi ploras_, I saw (that) she was crying. _Mi sciis, ke li venos_, I knew that he _would_ come. _Mi sciis, ke li jam alvenis_, I knew (that) he had already arrived. _Li diris, ke se li estus tiel granda, kiel mi, li facile farus tion_, he said that if he were as tall as I, he would easily do that.

Note that in Esperanto the verb is put in the exact time or tense used by the speaker. Thus: _mi ne sciis, ĉu li venos_, I did not know whether he would (_lit._, will) come; _ili ne diris, ĉu ili vin renkontis_, they did not say whether they had met you.

Use of Imperative.

After verbs expressing wish, intention, will, or desire, or command, the verb following is put in the IMPERATIVE MOOD. Thus: _mi ordonas, ke li venu_, I order that he come (him to come); _mi tre deziris, ke li vivu_, I very much wanted him to live; _ili intencis, ke ni perdu_, they intended us to lose. Here the actual expressions used were: _li venu_, _li vivu_, _ili perdu_.

Use of Conditional after _Se_.

_Se vi tiel diris, vi malprave faris_, if you spoke thus you did wrongly. _Se vi tiel dirus, vi estus malprava_, if you said (were to say) thus, you would be wrong. _Se vi venos, vi vidos_, if you (will) come, you will see.

Interjections.

The following are the principal INTERJECTIONS:

_adiaŭ!_ adieu! farewell! _ah!_ ah! _antaŭen!_ forward! _atentu!_ look out! _bis!_ encore! _bone!_ good! _certe!_ certainly! _ĉu ne?_ or _ĉu ne vere?_ is not that so? _ĉu vere?_ is that so? _efektive!_ indeed! _fi!_ fie! _for!_ away! be off! _ha!_ ha! _halt!_ halt! _he!_ hey! halloo! _ho!_ oh! _ho ve!_ alas! _hontinde!_ shameful! _jen!_ there! _kompreneble!_ naturally! of course! _ne!_ no! _neeble!_ impossible! _nu!_ well! _rapide!_ quick! _rapidu!_ hurry up!

Formation of Words.

In Esperanto, considerable use is made of prefixes and suffixes, every one of which has a clear, fixed meaning. Great economy of vocabulary is thus effected, one root-word in Esperanto sufficing, when modified by suitable affixes, to translate many English words. Many of the affixes are often met with as single words. In such cases the English translation is added after the various examples of the affix in question.

Prefixes.

*bo-* denotes RELATIONSHIP BY MARRIAGE: _patro_, father, _bopatro_, father-in-law; _filo_, son, _bofilo_, son-in-law.

*dis-* denotes SEPARATION: _ĵeti_, to throw, _disĵeti_, to scatter, throw about; _peli_, to drive along, _dispeli_, to dispel, _fali_, to fall, _disfali_, to fall apart, fall to pieces.

*ek-* denotes a BEGINNING OF AN ACTION, a MOMENTARY ACTION: _iri_, to go, _ekiri_, to begin to go, to start; _brili_, to shine, _ekbrili_, to begin to shine, to flash.

*ge-* denotes the TWO SEXES TAKEN TOGETHER: _patro_, father, _gepatroj_, father and mother, parents; _frato_, brother, _gefratoj_, brother(s) and sister(s); _Gesinjoroj B._, Mr. and Mrs. B.

*mal-* denotes the OPPOSITE OF AN IDEA: _bona_, good, _malbona_, bad; _ŝati_, to like, _malŝati_, to dislike; _amiko_, friend, _malamiko_, enemy; _laŭta_, loud, _mallaŭte_, softly.--_Malo_, an opposite; _male_, on the contrary.

*pra-* is a prefix of RELATIONSHIP, corresponding to the English FORE-, GREAT-: _patro_, father, _prapatro_, forefather, ancestor; _avo_, grandfather; _praavo_, great-grandfather; _nepo_, grandson, _pranepo_, great-grandson.

*re-* denotes RETURN AND REPETITION: _iri_, to go, _reiri_, to go back, or to go again; _repreni_, to take back; _revidi_, to see again.--_Ree_, again.

Suffixes.

*-aĉ* denotes that a word is used in a BAD SENSE, with DISPARAGEMENT: _domo_, a house, _domaĉo_, a hovel; _ridi_, to laugh, _ridaĉi_, to sneer.

*-ad* denotes CONTINUATION OR DURATION of an action: _paroli_, to speak, _paroladi_, to make a speech; _kanto_, a song, _kantado_, singing; _vojaĝo_, a voyage, _vojaĝado_, travelling; _rido_, a laugh, _ridado_, laughter.

*-aĵ* denotes some CONCRETE THING characterized by the idea contained in the root: _bela_, beautiful, _belaĵo_, a beautiful thing; _nutri_, to feed, nourish, _nutraĵo_ (or _nutrantaĵo_), food; _ĝentila_, polite, _ĝentilaĵo_, a polite act, act of politeness; _bovo_, ox, _bovaĵo_, beef.--_Aĵo_, a thing.

*-an* denotes a PARTISAN OF, a MEMBER, an INHABITANT: _Kristo_, Christ, _Kristano_, a Christian; _eklezio_, a church, _ekleziano_, a churchman; _Londonano_, a Londoner.--_Ano_, a member.

*-ar* denotes a COLLECTION OF, a NUMBER OF: _arbo_, tree, _arbaro_, a forest; _homo_, a human being, _homaro_, mankind; _vorto_, a word, _vortaro_, a dictionary.--_Aro_, a collection, number, gathering.

*-ĉj* added to the first two to five letters of a word, is used to denote MASCULINE DIMINUTIVES OF ENDEARMENT: _Johano_, John, _Joĉjo_, Jack; _patro_, father, _paĉjo_, papa, daddy.

*-ebl* denotes POSSIBILITY, and corresponds to the English suffixes -ABLE, -IBLE: _kredi_, to believe, _kredebla_, credible; _videbla_, visible; _al_, to, _iri_, to go, _alirebla_, accessible.

*-ec* denotes ABSTRACT IDEAS, QUALITIES and corresponds to the English suffixes -NESS, -SHIP, etc.: _feliĉa_, happy, _feliĉeco_, happiness; _alta_, high, _alteco_, height; _reĝo_, king, _reĝeco_, kingship.

*-eg* denotes AUGMENTATION, INTENSITY OF DEGREE: _granda_, big, great, _grandega_, enormous; _bela_, beautiful, _belega_, magnificent; _ŝtono_, stone, _ŝtonego_, rock; _pafilo_, a gun, _pafilego_, cannon.

*-ej* denotes a PLACE SPECIALLY SET APART FOR or allotted to: _preĝi_, to pray, _preĝejo_, church; _manĝi_, to eat, _manĝejo_, refectory; _kuirejo_, kitchen; _enirejo_, entrance; _elirejo_, exit.

*-em* denotes PROPENSITY, INCLINATION, DISPOSITION: _paroli_, to talk, _parolema_, talkative; _mensogi_, to lie, _mensogema_, untruthful.

*-er* denotes an ELEMENT OF, a UNIT, a GRAIN: _polvo_, dust, _polvero_, a grain of dust; _fajrero_, a spark; _hajlero_, hailstone; _mono_, money, _monero_, a coin.--_Ero_, particle, grain, element.

*-estr* denotes a CHIEF, LEADER, HEAD: _regno_, state; _regnestro_, head of the state, ruler; _lernejo_, school, _lernejestro_, head-master.--_Estro_, leader, chief; _estraro_, the authorities; _estri_, to act as chief.

*-id* denotes a DESCENDANT, OFFSPRING, YOUNG OF: _bovo_, ox, _bovido_, calf; _ŝafo_, a sheep, _ŝafido_, lamb; _Izraelido_, Israelite; _la homidoj_, the sons of man; _Sro. Brown kaj la Brownidoj_, Mr. Brown and the little Browns.--_Ido_, a descendant, child; _idaro_, descendants, offspring.

*-et* denotes DIMINUTION OF DEGREE (compare _-eg_ above): _bela_, beautiful, _beleta_, pretty; _venteto_, breeze; _ridi_, to laugh, _rideti_, to smile; _bona_, good, _boneta_, fairly good, mediocre.--_Eta_, tiny.

*-ig* denotes a MAKING, RENDERING, CAUSING TO BE: _granda_, great, _grandigi_, to enlarge; _venigi kuraciston_, to send for (cause to come) a doctor; _halti_, to stop (intr.), _haltigi_, to stop (tr.); _tranĉigi al si la harojn_, to get one's hair cut.--_Igi_, to make, render.

*-iĝ* denotes a BECOMING, GETTING, GROWING, BEING MADE: _hela_, bright, _heliĝi_, to grow or become bright; _ruĝa_, red, _ruĝiĝi_, to redden, blush; _disiĝi_, to separate (intr.).--_Iĝi_, to become.

With transitive verbs _iĝ-_ is used to make intransitive verbs, thus: _renversi_, to overthrow, turn upside down, _renversiĝi_, to turn (intr.) upside down, to get overthrown; _fari_, to make, _fariĝi_, to become; _perdiĝi_, to get lost; _vidiĝi_, to be seen.

Used with intransitive verbs, _iĝ-_ gives the idea of a becoming, a GRADUAL TRANSITION from one state to another: _morti_, to die, _mortiĝi_, to become dead, to die away, to expire; _sidi_, to be seated, _sidiĝi_, to become seated, to sit down.

NOTE that, since verbs in _-iĝ_ are of necessity intransitive, their participles should only be used in the ACTIVE FORM. Thus: _renversiĝ_*inta*, having become overthrown, and not _renversiĝ_*ita*; _perdiĝ_*inta*, having become lost, not _perdiĝ_*ita*; and so on. One might of course simply say _renversita_, overthrown, and _perdita_, lost, though the meaning would in that case not be quite the same.

*-il* denotes an INSTRUMENT, TOOL, or MEANS: _tranĉi_, to cut, _tranĉilo_, a knife; _filtri_, to filter, _filtrilo_, a filter; _teni_, to hold, _tenilo_, a handle.--_Ilo_, tool, instrument; _ilaro_, set of tools.

*-ind* denotes WORTHINESS (English -WORTHY): _laŭdi_, to praise, _laŭdinda_, praiseworthy; _vidinda_, worth seeing, _vidindaĵoj_, things worth seeing, sights.--_Inda (je)_, worthy (of); _indeco_, worthiness.

*-ing* denotes the HOLDER OF A SINGLE OBJECT (compare _-uj_ below): _plumo_, pen, _plumingo_, penholder; _fingro_, finger, _fingringo_, thimble; _cigaringo_, cigar-holder.--_Ingo_, a socket, holder.

*-in* denotes FEMININES: _viro_, a man, _virino_, a woman; _patro_, father, _patrino_, mother.--_Ino_, a female.

*-ist* denotes TRADE, OCCUPATION, PROFESSION: _labori_, to work, _laboristo_, workman; _kuraci_, to treat (medically), _kuracisto_, doctor.

*-nj* added to the first two to five letters of a word, is used to form FEMININE DIMINUTIVES OF ENDEARMENT (compare _-ĉj_ above): _Johanino_, Jane, _Johanjo_, Jenny; _patrino_, mother, _panjo_, mamma.

*-uj* denotes a RECEPTACLE which contains or bears a COLLECTION OR A QUANTITY of things or material (compare _-ing_ above): _mono_, money, _monujo_, purse; _inko_, ink, _inkujo_, inkstand.--_Ujo_, a utensil case, bin.

The suffix _-uj_ is also used to denote TREES bearing certain fruits: _pomo_, apple, _pomujo_, apple-tree; _ĉerizujo_, cherry-tree; _rozujo_, rose-bush. The word _arbo_, however, is more frequently used in such cases: _pomarbo_, _rozarbeto_, etc.

_-Uj_ is also used to denote the NAMES OF COUNTRIES: _Anglo_, Englishman, _Anglujo_, England; _Franco_, a Frenchman, _Francujo_, France. (See footnote 4.)

*-ul* denotes a BEING CHARACTERISED BY THE IDEA CONTAINED IN THE ROOT-WORD: _bela_, beautiful, _belulino_, a beautiful woman, a beauty; _kulpo_, blame, _kulpulo_, culprit; _laŭdindulo_, one worthy to be praised; _bonulo_, a good fellow; _bonegulo_, a jolly good fellow.

*-um* is an INDEFINITE SUFFIX, like the word _je_ among the prepositions, Thus: _pleni_, to fill, _plenumi_, to fulfil (compare _plenigi_, to fill); _kolo_, neck, _kolumo_, collar; _aero_, air, _aerumi_, to air (a room, clothes, etc.).

[Words containing _-um_ should be learnt as independent roots.]

Compound Words.

In Esperanto, any word can be combined with any other word or words to form a compound word. Considerable use is made of prepositions for this purpose. The requisite grammatical ending must of course be added in each case. The student should carefully study the following words, and also those given above, and endeavour to form words for himself.[9] Ability to form words readily is absolutely necessary to fluent speech or composition in the language. In the examples given below the component parts of the words are separated by a small stroke ('), but these are of course omitted in ordinary usage:

_El'iri_, to go out _antaŭ'ĉambro_, antechamber _pri'pensi_, to think over, reflect upon _preter'paŝi_, to pass by _per'labori_, to earn (gain by working) _per'forto_, violence _tra'vivi_, to live through, experience _supre'n'iri_, to go up, ascend _inter'rompi_, to interrupt _kun'veno_, an assembly, meeting _al'paroli_, to address, accost _inter'rilati_, to relate one with another _inter'rilatoj_, inter-relations _inter'nacia_, international _skrib(o)'tablo_, writing-table _dorm(o)'ĉambro_, bedroom _naz'tuko_, handkerchief _ter'tremo_, earthquake _glit'iri_, to skate _glit'veturilo_, a sleigh _pied'ir'anto_, a pedestrian _bru'fermi_, to slam _facil'mova_, agile, easy-moving _hom'amo_, philanthropy _bon'far'anto_, benefactor _strat'lanterno_, street-lamp _bot'far'isto_, bootmaker _sam'profesi'anoj_, members of the same profession _ĉio'potenca_, all-powerful _libr'amanto_, a book-lover _doktor'edzino_, doctor's wife _mon'akir'ilo_, a means of getting money _ĉio'n'faranta_, all-doing _alt'anima_, high-souled _vivi'pova_, capable of life _ali'landulo_, foreigner _ali'maniere_, in another way _tiu'speca_, of that kind

CORRELATIVE WORDS.

INDEFINITE |Interrog. Rel. |Demonstrative |Distributive |Negative | K | T | Ĉ | NEN QUALITY---------+---------------+--------------+--------------+----------- IA | KIA | TIA | ĈIA | NENIA Some (kind of) |What (sort |That sort of |Each kind of |No (kind Any (kind of) |of)? |Such (a) |Every (kind |of) | | |of) | REASON----------+---------------+--------------+--------------+----------- IAL | KIAL | TIAL | ĈIAL | NENIAL For some |For what |For that |For every |For no reason. For |reason? Why? |reason |reason. On |reason. On any reason | |Therefore |every account |no account TIME------------+---------------+--------------+--------------+----------- IAM | KIAM | TIAM | ĈIAM | NENIAM At some time |At what time? |At that time |At all times |At no time Sometimes, |When? |Then |Always, each |Never ever | | |time | PLACE-----------+---------------+--------------+--------------+----------- IE | KIE | TIE | ĈIE | NENIE At any place |At what place? |In that place |At each place |At no place Somewhere |Where? |There |Everywhere |Nowhere MANNER----------+---------------+--------------+--------------+----------- IEL | KIEL | TIEL | ĈIEL | NENIEL In some way |In what way? |In that way |In every way |In no way anyhow |How? Like, as |So, thus, as |In each way |Nohow POSSESSION------+---------------+--------------+--------------+----------- IES | KIES | TIES | ĈIES | NENIES Somebody's |Whose? |That one's |Everyone's |Nobody's Anybody's |What person's? |That person's |Each one's |No one's THING-----------+---------------+--------------+--------------+----------- IO | KIO | TIO | ĈIO | NENIO Something |What (thing)? |That (thing) |All |Nothing Anything | | |Everything |Nought QUANTITY--------+---------------+--------------+--------------+----------- IOM | KIOM | TIOM | ĈIOM | NENIOM Some |How much? |So much |All |None A little |What Quantity? |That quantity |The whole | | | |quantity | INDIVIDUALITY---+---------------+--------------+--------------+----------- IU | KIU | TIU | ĈIU | NENIU Anyone |What person? |That one |Everyone, |Nobody | | |every |No one

CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES AND SENTENCES.

38. Useful and Necessary Expressions. (_Utilaj kaj Necesaj Esprimoj._)