Esperanto Self-Taught with Phonetic Pronunciation

Chapter 10

Chapter 102,281 wordsPublic domain

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

The Article.

The DEFINITE ARTICLE _the_ is in Esperanto represented by _la_. Like the article in English, _la_ does not vary with the number or gender of the noun before which it is placed; e.g., _la briko_, the brick; _la brikoj_, the bricks; _la patro_, the father; _la patrinoj_, the mothers.

The INDEFINITE ARTICLE _a_ is not expressed in Esperanto. Thus, "_filo_" is _son_ or _a son_.

The Noun.

In Esperanto every noun in the singular ends in *o*. Thus: viro, _a man_; la libro, _the book_. The plural is formed from the singular by adding the termination *-j*. Thus: viroj, _men_; la libroj, _the books_.

In order to allow each nation to construct its sentences in the order to which it is accustomed, every noun in Esperanto has two forms or "cases," (1) the NOMINATIVE, or unchanged form, and (2) the ACCUSATIVE, which is formed from the nominative by adding the termination *-n*. This is merely to distinguish between subject and object. The accusative form is also used to indicate motion towards, etc.

The Adjective.

All adjectives end in the nominative singular in *a*. They may be placed either before or after the noun. As in the case of the noun, the plural is formed by adding the termination *-j*, and the accusative is formed by adding *-n* to the nominative. The adjective agrees in number and case with the noun which it qualifies. Ex.:--

Blua libro (_or_ libro blua), _a blue book_; bluaj libroj, _blue books_. La viro legas bluan libron. _The man reads a blue book._ La viroj legas bluajn librojn. _The men are reading blue books._

Thanks to the accusative case, one might say without loss of clearness: Bluan libron legas la viro, _or_ la viro bluan libron legas, _or_ bluan libron la viro legas, etc.

Degrees of Comparison.

There are three degrees of comparison, as in English:

The POSITIVE, as _bona_, good; _bela_, beautiful; _granda_, big, great.

The COMPARATIVE is formed by placing _pli_ (more) or _malpli_ (less) before the positive, thus: _bona_, good--_pli bona_, better; _bela_, beautiful--_malpli bela_, less beautiful. The comparison may be heightened by using _multe_ (much), thus: _multe pli_ (or _malpli_) _bela_.

_Than_ is translated by _ol_, thus: _pli_ (or _malpli_) _bela ol_..., more (_or_ less) beautiful than...

The SUPERLATIVE degree is formed by using _plej_ (most) with the positive; as _bela_, beautiful--_plej bela_, most beautiful.

_Of_ with a superlative is translated by the preposition _el_ (out of). _La plej granda el ĉiuj_, the greatest of all.

_The more...the more_, _the less...the less_, are translated by means of the particles _ju_ and _des_. Thus: _Ju pli oni studas, des pli oni lernas_, the more one studies, the more one learns. _Ju pli mi kun li parolas, des malpli mi lin estimas_, the more I speak to him, the less I esteem him.

Cardinal Numbers.

The CARDINAL NUMBERS may be used as _nouns_, by the addition of the ending *-o*. Thus, _unuo_, a unit; _trio_, a trio; _dekduo_, a dozen; _dudeko_, a score; _cento_, a hundred; _milo_, a thousand. Note that _miliono_ is ALWAYS used as a noun.

When a number or any other word is used as a noun of quantity, the noun which follows it must be preceded by the quantitative preposition *da*:--_Dekduo da ovoj_, a dozen eggs; _milo da soldatoj_, a thousand soldiers (one might of course also say _dek du ovoj_, _mil soldatoj_); _du metroj da drapo_, two metres of cloth; _tri funtoj da sukero_, three pounds of sugar.

Ordinal Numbers.

The ORDINAL NUMBERS are formed by adding the adjectival ending *-a* to the Cardinals. In Compound Ordinal Numbers, the groups of hundreds, tens, units, etc., are _joined by hyphens_, and the ending *-a* is added to the unit numeral. Thus: _unu_, one--_unua_, first; _tria_, third; _dek-unua_, eleventh; _tridek-sepa_, thirty-seventh; _kvarcent-sesdek-dua_, 462nd, and so on. Written in figures these would be _1a_, _3a_, _11a_, _37a_, _462a_. The Ordinals are of course inflected like adjectives. (See section "The Adjective".)

Fractions

FRACTIONALS are formed by adding the suffix *-on* (plus the endings *o*, *a*, or *e* as required) to the Cardinal Numbers. Thus: _unu duono_, one-half; _tri kvaronoj_, three-quarters; _dek sep dek-naŭonoj_, 17/19; _dudek tri kvarmil-kvincent-tridek-naŭonoj_, 23/4539. _Duone vera_ (or _duonvera_), half-true. _Tri-kvaronoj da funto_ (or _trikvaronfuntoj_), 3/4 lb. _Duono da funto_ (or _duonfunto_), 1/2 lb.

Multiples, Collectives, and Distributives.

MULTIPLE Numbers are formed from the Cardinals by adding the suffix *-obl*, with the requisite grammatical ending *o*, *a*, or *e*. Thus: _duobla_, double; _duoblo_, a double; _duoble_, doubly; _tridekoble_, thirty-fold; _sesoble naŭ estas_ (or _faras_) _kvindek kvar_, six nines are fifty-four; _duoble du estas kvar_, twice two are four.

COLLECTIVE Numerals are formed by the addition of the suffix *-op* (plus the grammatical termination required). Thus: _duope_, two at a time, two together; _naŭope_, nine at a time; _ili venadis dekope_, they came in tens; _dumilopa taĉmento_, a detachment two thousand strong.

DISTRIBUTIVES are shown by the preposition _po_, meaning _at the rate of_. Thus: _li aĉetis por ĉiu infano po ses pomoj_, he bought six apples for each child; _li ricevas po dek ŝilingoj por ĉiu tago_, he gets ten shillings a day; _la vagonaro veturas po sesdek mejloj en ĉiu horo_ (or _ĉiuhore_), the train travels at (the rate of) sixty miles an hour, etc.

The Pronoun.

The PERSONAL PRONOUNS are, in the nominative: _Mi_, I; _vi_, you (sing. and pl.); _ni_, we; _li_, he; _ŝi_, she; _ĝi_, it; _ili_, they.

The archaic English _thou_ may be translated by _ci_.

The Accusative case of the personal pronouns is formed like that of nouns and adjectives, by adding *-n*. Thus: _Min_, me; _vin_, you; _nin_, us; _lin_, him; _ŝin_, her; _ĝin_, it; _ilin_, them.

The REFLEXIVE PRONOUN of the 3rd person is _si_ (accusative _sin_), standing for _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, _one's-self_, or _themselves_, as the case may be. There is no special reflexive form for the pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person, _I_, _we_, and _you_.

The INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN is _oni_ (= the French _on_)--one, people, they, you. Ex.: _Li amas sin_, he loves himself; _ŝi amas sin_, she loves herself; _ĝi montras sin_, it shows itself; _ili diras al si_, they say to themselves; _oni vidas sin_, one sees one's-self; _mi lavas min_, I wash myself; _vi laŭdas vin_, you praise yourself.

Possessive Adjectives or Pronouns.

By adding the adjectival ending *-a* to the personal pronouns, the POSSESSIVE Adjectives and Pronouns are obtained. Thus: _Mia_, my, mine; _cia_, thy, thine; _via_, your, yours; _nia_, our, ours; _lia_, his; _ŝia_, her, hers; _ĝia_, its; _sia_ (reflexive), his, her(s), its, their(s), one's.

NOTE the following use of _sia_. In English the sentence, "He saw his friend with his brother," is not clear. Does it mean that he saw his friend (1) with his _friend's brother_, or (2) with his _own brother_? In Esperanto, the use of _sia_ makes the meaning quite clear; (1) would be: _Li vidis sian amikon kun LIA frato_, and (2) would be: _Li vidis sian amikon kun SIA frato_.

The word _mem_, meaning _-self or -selves_, may be added to a personal pronoun to give emphasis. Thus: _Konu vin mem_, know thyself; _li iris mem_, he went himself; _li mem_, himself; _li parolis al si mem_, he spoke to himself.

Like other adjectives, possessives agree in case and number with the noun to which they refer. Ex.:

_lia libro_, his book; _liaj libroj_, his books; _ŝi havas lian, kaj li havas ŝian_, she has his, and he has hers; _liaj estas la plej bonaj libroj_, his are the best books; _mi preferas miajn_, I prefer mine; _li preferas siajn_, he prefers his; _ili preferas siajn_, they prefer theirs.

Demonstrative Adjective or Pronoun.

The DEMONSTRATIVE Adjective and Pronoun "that" is rendered in Esperanto by the word _tiu_ (acc. _tiun_); plural _tiuj_ (acc. _tiujn_), those. The addition (either before or after) of the particle _ĉi_ to the singular and plural respectively, gives _this_ and _these_. Ex.:

_Tiu viro_, that man. _Tiu estas mia_, that (one) is mine. _Mi elektas tiun_, I choose that (one). _Mi preferas tiun ĉi_ (or _ĉi tiujn_), I prefer this (one). _Tiuj ĉi_ (or _ĉi tiuj_) _estas miaj_, these are mine. _Mi portos tiujn ĉi_, I will carry these.

Interrogative Pronouns.

_Kiu?_--who, which? Plural, _kiuj?_ _Kio?_--what? _Kies?_--whose? _Al kiu?_--to whom? _Kiun?_--whom? (acc.), _kiujn?_ (acc. plu.). Ex.:

_Kiu estas tiu?_--who is that? _Kiun vi deziras vidi?_--whom do you desire to see? _Kiuj foriris?_--which (ones) went away? _Kiujn vi vidis?_--which ones did you see?

_Kiu_ is also used with ADJECTIVAL meaning. Thus: _Kiu libro estas via?_--which book is yours? _Kiun libron vi preferas?_--which book do you prefer? _Kiuj domoj apartenas al vi?_--which houses belong to you? _Kiujn stratojn vi konas?_--which streets do you know? _Kio estas tio?_--what is that? _Kion li volas?_--what does he want?

The English _-ever_ is translated by _ajn_. For example: _Kiu ajn li estas, ne parolu al li_, whoever he be, do not speak to him. _Kies ajn_, whosesoever. _Kiu(j)n ajn_, whomever.

Relative Pronouns.

The Relative Pronouns are identical with the Interrogative: _Kiu(j)_, who, that, which, _kiu(j)n_, whom, that, which. Ex.:

_La libro, kiun vi legas_, the book (which) you are reading. _Tiu, kiu parolis al vi_, the one who spoke to you. _La personoj, kiujn li konas_, the persons (whom) he knows. _Tio, kion li diras, ne estas vera_, what he says is not true. _La arbo, kies supron vi vidas_, the tree whose top you can see.

Indefinite Pronouns.

_iu_ (acc. _iun_), anyone, someone or other; _ies_, anyone's, someone's; _iuj_ (acc. _iujn_), any persons, some persons or other; _io_ (acc. _ion_), anything, something.

_ĉiu_ (acc. _ĉiun_), everyone, each; _ĉies_, everyone's, everybody's, each one's; _ĉiuj_ (acc. _ĉiujn_), everybody, all; _ĉio_ (acc. _ĉion_), everything, all.

_neniu_ (acc. _neniun_), no one, nobody; _nenies_, no one's, nobody's; _nenio_ (acc. _nenion_), nothing, not anything.

NOTE.--_Iu_, _ĉiu_, and _neniu_ are also used with nouns. Thus: _Kiun libron vi deziras?_ Which book do you desire? _Iun ajn libron._ Any book. _Iu homo_, any man, some man or other. _Ĉiu bona patro amas siajn infanojn_, every good father loves his children. _Ĉiuj liaj amikoj_ (or _ĉiu lia amiko_), all his friends, every friend of his. _Mi renkontis neniun amikon_, I met no friend.

Other PRONOMINAL WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS are:

_multaj(n)_, many; _multo(n)_, much; _malmultaj(n), malmulte da..._, a few. Ex.: _malmultaj personoj_, few persons; _malmulte da scio_, little knowledge.

_kelkajn_, some, several; _kelke da..._, some. Ex.: _kelkaj personoj_, some persons, several persons; _kelke da libroj_, some (quantity of) books.

_alia(n)_, another, other; _aliaj(n)_, others. Ex.: _ili parolis unu al alia_, they spoke to one another; _ni parolis unu al la alia_, we spoke to each other; _unu aŭ la alia taŭgos_, either (one or the other) will do; _nek unu nek la alia konvenas_, neither (one nor the other) is suitable.

_ambaŭ_ (invariable), both. Ex.: _ambaŭ venis_, both came; _mi konas ambaŭ fratojn_, I know both brothers; _mi vidis ilin ambaŭ_, I saw both of them; _mi ŝatas ambaŭ_, I like both.

The Verb.

Tenses.

The VERB in Esperanto has three main Tenses--the Present, Past, and Future. These are denoted by means of the verbal endings *-as*, *-is*, and *-os*. Thus, from the root _vid_, see, are formed:

Present. | Past. | Future. _mi vidas_, I see | _mi vidis_, I saw | _mi vidos_, I shall see

Moods.

Every Esperanto verb has three Moods--the Conditional, the Imperative, and the Infinitive, which are formed respectively by means of the endings *-us*, *-u*, and *-i*. Thus:

Conditional. | Imperative. | Infinitive. _mi vidus_, I should see | _vidu_, see! | _vidi_, to see

The CONDITIONAL Mood is used to express _supposition_; the three Tenses, on the other hand, are used to express _facts_ or actual happenings. (For examples, see §. "Conjunctions".)

The IMPERATIVE Mood is used to express an order, desire, wish, will, etc. (See §. "Use of Imperative".) Used with the personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons, this mood corresponds to the English _let_, used as an expression of a wish. Thus: _mi pensu_, let me think; _li venu morgaŭ_, let him come to-morrow; _ili parolu_, let them speak.