PART III

_RELIGIOUS WAYFARERS_

I. WANDERING PREACHERS AND FRIARS • 283

II. THE PARDONERS • 312

III. PILGRIMS AND PILGRIMAGES

1. Pilgrimages, their motives: to fulfil a vow, to spite the king, to regain health • 338

2. Principal English pilgrimages; the one of European celebrity, St. Thomas of Canterbury • 346

3. Piety, merriment, abuses. Real and false relics. Signs and brooches. Pilgrim stories. Honest and false pilgrims • 357

4. Pilgrimages beyond sea, Calais, Boulogne, Chartres, Rocamadour, St. James of Compostela, Cologne, Rome. Offerings left and indulgences gained. Helping gilds. Faith, superstition, and scepticism. Pilgrimages by proxy • 370

5. The holy journey to Jerusalem. Pilgrims in the days of St. Jerome. Pilgrims in arms, the crusades. Itineraries and Journals. “Mandeville,” William Wey, the lord of Anglure • 395

CONCLUSION • 419

APPENDIX • 423

I. Patent of King John entrusting a French cleric with the completion of London Bridge, 1201 • 425

II. Petition concerning an old bridge, with arches too low and too narrow to allow boats to pass, 1442 • 426

III. London Bridge and its maintenance • 427

IV. Inquests as to the maintenance of bridges, _temp._ Ed. I and Ed. II • 429

V. The King’s journeys. Petitions and statutes concerning the Royal Purveyors • 430

VI. The recurrence of leet-days and visits of Justices • 431

VII. The dress of the worldly monk • 432

VIII. Noblemen’s exactions when travelling • 433

IX. Passage of the Humber in a ferry • 433

X. The right of sanctuary • 434

XI. A monopoly of minstrelsy for the King’s own minstrels • 435

XII. Popular English songs of the Middle Ages • 437

XIII. Indulgences and the theory of the “Treasury” according to Pope Clement VI • 438

XIV. Sermon accompanying the display of a pretended papal bull (on the occasion of the coming of Henry of Lancaster) • 439

XV. Ecclesiastical documents concerning chiefly English pardoners • 440

XVI. The first recorded crucifix in England sculptured from life • 445

XVII. The pilgrimage of Reynard • 446

INDEX • 449

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ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Knights travelling, followed by their escort of archers. From the MS. Harleian 1319, in the British Museum, fol. 25, painted circa 1400 (below No. 15). The two travellers are the Duke of Exeter and the Duke of Surrey; they go to meet Henry of Lancaster at Chester, to whom they are sent by King Richard II, August 1399. • _Frontispiece_ 4

2. A minstrel dancing and singing. From the MS. 2 B. vii., in the British Museum, fol. 197_a_. English, early fourteenth century • 7

3. The three-branched bridge at Crowland, fourteenth century, present state • 21

4. Old London Bridge. From an illumination in the MS. 16 F. ii. fol. 73, in the British Museum, containing the poems of Charles d’Orléans (fifteenth century). This is the oldest representation extant of the famous bridge built by Isembert and his peers. The painting, of which the upper part only is here given, represents the Tower of London with Charles d’Orléans sitting in it as a prisoner. In our reproduction may be seen the chapel of St. Thomas Becket and the houses on the bridge, the wharves along the City side of the water, and the tops of the white turrets of the Tower of London. The view was obviously painted from nature. A complete reproduction serves as a frontispiece for Vol. I of my “Literary History.” • 29

5. The old bridge on the Rhône at Avignon, built by the friars pontiff in the twelfth century, as it now stands, the four arches and the chapel • 33

6. The old bridge at Cahors, thirteenth century, present state, photographed by Prof. Enlart, director of the Trocadero Museum • 37

7. The bridge at Stratford-at-Bow, as it stood before its reconstruction in 1839. From an engraving dated 1814 • 41

8. A part of London Bridge; None-such House, the drawbridge, and the houses on the bridge, as they appeared in 1600. From a drawing in Pepys Library, Magd. Coll., Cambridge, reproduced by Dr. Furnivall in his edition of Harrison’s “Description of England,” 1877 • 45

9. The taking down of the houses on old London Bridge, from a water-colour by C. Pyne (1800–1884), preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum • 51

10. Hugh of Clopton’s bridge at Stratford-on-Avon, fifteenth century • 55

11. The chapel on the bridge at Wakefield, fourteenth century. From a copyright photograph by G. and J. Hall, of Wakefield • 67

12. The bridge with a defensive tower at Warkworth, Northumberland, fourteenth century. From a photograph by G. W. Wilson, of Aberdeen • 71

13. The defensive tower on the Monnow Bridge at Monmouth, from a photograph obligingly supplied by Mr. Oliver Baker • 75

14. The one-arched bridge on the Esk, near Danby Castle, Yorkshire, built during the fourteenth century by Neville, Lord Latimer, the arms of whom are still to be seen at the top of the bridge. From a photograph obtained through the kindness of the Rev. J. C. Atkinson, of Danby Parsonage, York • 77

15. The parliament sitting in Westminster. From the MS. Harl. 1319, in the British Museum, fol. 57, painted circa 1400. This MS. contains a chronicle of the last years of Richard II, written in his native tongue by a French gentleman called Créton, who accompanied the king in his last journey to Ireland. It is invaluable both for its text and its pictures; in both the author seems to have been very careful to adhere to facts. He begins writing in verse, but afterwards takes to prose, stating that he is coming now to events of such importance that he prefers using prose, to make sure that he shall not allow himself to be led by fancy.

He must have himself superintended the painting with the greatest care. There can be no doubt that the figures are actual portraits; of this there are two proofs: first, when the same person appears in several paintings he is always given the same features, and can be easily recognized; second, the exact resemblance of one of the persons can be put beyond a doubt, which makes it likely that the others also resemble their originals. Richard II, the image of whom constantly recurs in the pictures, is easily recognizable as having the same features as in the bronze statue over his tomb at Westminster. And we know for certain that this tomb and statue were ordered by Richard himself during his lifetime; the indenture with the seals attached, dated 18 Rich. II (1395), and binding two apparently English artists, viz., “Nicholas Broker et Godfrey Prest, citeins et copersmythes de Loundres,” is still in existence at the Record Office.

The sitting of the parliament here represented is the famous one when Richard was deposed, and Henry of Lancaster came forth to “chalenge yis Rewme of Yngland” (“Rolls of Parliament,” iii. p. 422), Oct. 1399, and the throne was then, as seen in the painting, left unoccupied, “sede regali cum pannis auri solempniter preparata, tunc vacua,” “Rolls,” ibid. On the right of the throne are seated the spiritual lords; on the left the temporal lords, knights, &c. The nearest to the throne left is Henry of Lancaster (wearing a tall fur cap). Says Créton:

“Entour le dit siége asez près Estoient les prélas assis . . . D’autre costé tous les seigneurs, Grans moyens petiz et meneurs (lesser ones) . . . Premiers seoit le duc Henry Et puis tout au plus près de ly Le duc Diorc (York) son beau cousin,” &c. • 87

16. A common cart. From the MS. 10 E. IV., in the British Museum, fol. 110 _b_, early fourteenth century, English • 90

17. A reaper’s cart going up-hill. From the Louterell psalter; fac-simile of the engraving in the “Vetusta Monumenta,” Society of Antiquaries, vol. vi.; see in that vol., “Remarks on the Louterell psalter,” by J. G. Rokewood—“Dominus Galfridus Louterell me fieri fecit.” English, first half of the fourteenth century • 93

18. Ladies travelling in their carriage with their dogs and pet animals, one of which is a squirrel. One of the followers travelling on horseback, to be more at his ease and to be able to defy the wind, has covered his head with his hood, and carries his tall hat hanging to his girdle. From the Louterell psalter. See preceeding No. • 97

19. A young squire travelling:

“And he hadde ben somtyme in chivachie, In Flaundres, in Artoys, and in Picardie, And born him wel, as of so litel space, In hope to stonden in his lady grace. Embrowdid was he, as it were a mede Al ful of fressh floures, white and reede, Syngynge he was, or flowtynge al the day; He was as fressh as is the moneth of May.”

From the Ellesmere MS. of the “Canterbury Tales.” The Ellesmere cuts are used by the kind permission of Dr. Furnivall • 100

20. Travelling in a horse-litter; a lady and a wounded knight are carried in the litter; squires escort them. From the MS. 118 Français, fol. 285, in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris; “Romance of Lancelot,” late fourteenth century, French. A good example of a State horse-litter is to be found in the MS. 18 E. II, in the British Museum, fol. 7; “Chronicles of Froissart,” French, fifteenth century • 101

21–22. Ladies on horseback. Two drawings illustrative of both ways of riding; sitting sideways: Chaucer’s prioresse, and riding astride: Chaucer’s Wife of Bath. From the Ellesmere MS. • 105

23. A family dinner. From the MS. Addit. 28162, in the British Museum, fol. 10 _b_, early fourteenth century; French. Note the carver, the cup-bearer, the musicians, the marshal of the hall, whose mission it is to expel objectionable intruders, whether men or dogs. In the present case, while this officer is expelling a very objectionable lazar, come under pretence of sprinkling the diners with holy water, a little further a dog seizes his opportunity, and gets hold of a fish on the table. The carver grasps the meat with his left hand; forks then were unknown, but good breeding was, nevertheless, not neglected, and it consisted in the server’s touching the meat only with the _left_ hand. Writing later than the time we speak of, John Russell, marshal of the hall to Duke Humphrey of Gloucester (fifteenth century), adds one refinement more, that is to use only three fingers of the left hand. This was, in his mind, the acme of fine breeding:

“Sett never on fysche nor flesche, nor fowle trewly, Moore than ij fyngurs and a thombe, for that is curtesie. Touche never with youre right hande no maner mete surely.” “Boke of Nurture” (Furnivall, 1868, p. 137).

It may be seen from our picture that part of these niceties was unknown yet to carvers in the first half of the fourteenth century. The whole of the left hand is used to grasp the meat • 109

24.

“A cooke thei hadde . . . To boyle chiknes and the mary bones.”

From the illumination in the Ellesmere MS. of the “Canterbury Tales.” The pot-hooks with three prongs, which he carries, were the distinctive attribute of cooks and cookmaids, and appear on all representations of such people: several are to be found in the Louterell psalter; see “Vetusta Monumenta,” vol. vi., the Roy. MS. 10 E. IV., _passim_, &c. They used it to turn the meat and take it out of the deep round-bellied pots, standing on three legs over the fire, which were then in common use • 116

25. The new habits of luxury; a gentleman, helped by two attendants, dressing before the fire in his bedroom. From the MS. 2 B. vii., in the British Museum, fol. 72 _b_, English, early fourteenth century • 127

Of this luxury, of the spread of the use of chimneys, &c., Langland, as a satirist, complains; and this, as a marshal of the hall, John Russell a little later recommends as the proper method of dressing for a gentleman. He then thus addresses the attendant:

“Than knele down on youre kne, and thus to youre soverayn ye say: ‘Syr, what robe or govn pleseth it yow to were today?’” &c. “Boke of Nurture” (Furnivall, 1868, p. 178).

26. An English inn of the fourteenth century. From the Louterell psalter • 129

27. The New Inn, Gloucester, originally built for pilgrims, middle of the fifteenth century, still in use • 131

28. On the roadside; the alehouse. From the MS. 10 E. IV., in the British Museum, fol. 114 _b_; English, fourteenth century • 133

29. The hermitage chapel of St. Robert, hewn out of the limestone, at Knaresborough, Yorkshire, thirteenth century; the figure of the knight, of a much later date. Similar rock habitations are innumerable in France in the valley of the Loire and of certain of its affluents, especially in Vendomois (at Troo for example); some are still occupied; several were, in the middle ages, the place of abode of hermits and still bear signs thereof • 139

30. A Hermit in his solitude, tempted by the devil; MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 113 _b_. The miniature reproduced is one out of several which illustrate a well-known mediæval tale. Here it may be remarked that though this MS., invaluable as it is for the study of English customs, dresses, &c., during the fourteenth century has been often made use of, it has perhaps never been so thoroughly studied as it deserves. It contains Decretals, with marginal coloured drawings of the highest value on account of their variety and the subjects they illustrate. Not only a number of games and trades are there represented, with many miracles of the Virgin, &c., but there are also complete tales told by the draughtsman, without words, and only with the help of his colours. He does not invent his stories, but simply illustrates the _fabliaux_ which he remembered and particularly relished. The drawing here belongs to the story of the “hermit who got drunk.” As he was once sitting before his cell he was tempted by the devil, who reproached him with his continual virtue, and entreated him to sin at least once, recommending him to choose either to get drunk or to commit adultery or to commit murder. The hermit chose the first as being the least (see below, p. 133, the picture where he is seen at his drink). But when he has once got drunk he finds on his way the wife of his friend the miller; he commits adultery with her, and then meeting the husband, kills him. The text of the tale is in Méon, “Nouveau recueil de fabliaux,” 1829, vol. ii. p. 173, “De l’ermite qui s’enyvra” • 144

31. Escaped prisoner flying to sanctuary. From the MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 206 _b_, in the British Museum, fourteenth century • 149

32. The Durham knocker (Norman), affixed to one of the doors of the cathedral. Fugitives used it to be admitted to sanctuary. Cf. a capital in the church at Saint Nectaire, Puy de Dôme, XIth century, representing, in accordance with Professor Enlart’s interpretation, a man who flies to sanctuary and embraces a column thereof, while an angel with drawn sword stands by to protect him • 158

33. The stone _frith_ or _frid_ stool in Hexham Abbey, Northumberland, dating from Saxon times, possibly the episcopal chair of St. Wilfrid, a great church builder, bishop of Hexham in the early years of the VIIIth century • 160

34. The stone fridstool at Sprotborough, Yorkshire, fourteenth century, a view kindly procured by my British colleague at Washington, Lord Grey of Fallodon • 161

35. An adventure seeker. From the MS. 2 B. vii., fol. 149, English, early fourteenth century • 181

36. A blind beggar led by his dog. From the MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 110 • 182

37. A Physician (Chaucer’s Doctour of Phisik):

“He knew the cause of every malady.”

From the Ellesmere MS. • 183

38. Playing upon the vielle (viol). From the MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 4 • 207

39. The “Minstrels’ gallery” in the Exeter cathedral, fourteenth century. From a photograph by Messrs. Frith and Co. • 209

40. A fourteenth-century juggler. From the MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 5 • 216

41. Favourite dances of the fourteenth century; a woman dancing head downwards, to the sound of a tabor and a double flute. From the MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 58. Representations of such dances of women, head downwards, are innumerable in MSS., painted glass, old portals, &c. There is one in the album of Villard de Honnecourt, thirteenth century, ed. Lassus and Darcel; the interest taken in such performances is attested by countless examples • 219

42. Favourite dances in Persia. From a pencil-case in the possession of the author. See also the life-size Persian paintings exhibited in the Victoria and Albert Museum, where similar dances are represented • 220

43. A performing bear. From the MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 154, in the British Museum, English, fourteenth century • 222

44. A sham messenger carrying a letter. From the MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 53 _b_ • 223

45. A professional messenger. From the MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 302 _b_, in the British Museum, English, fourteenth century • 228

46. A travelling pedlar; his bag robbed by monkeys. From the MS. 10 E. IV., in the British Museum, fol. 149 _b_ • 238

47. A rich merchant travelling (Chaucer’s Marchaunt):

“A marchaunt was ther with a forked berd, In motteleye, and high on horse he sat, Uppon his heed a Flaundrisch bever hat . . . Ther wiste no man that he was in dette So estately was he of governaunce.”

From the Ellesmere MS. • 245

48. Forest life; wood-cutters. From the MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 100 _b_ • 254

49. Forest life; a shooting casualty. From the MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 203 _a_ • 258

50. Reaping time. Labourers reaping corn under the supervision of the hayward. From the MS. 2 B. vii., fol. 78 _b_. English, early fourteenth century. “They dwell in fayre houses, and we haue the payne and traueyle, rayne and wynd in the feldes” (speech of John Ball, in Lord Berners’ Froissart, chap. ccclxxxi). The overseer shown in the drawing may possibly be a bailiff: “Supervidere debet ballivus falcatores, messores, cariatores,” &c. (“Fleta,” cap. 73), or a provost, who had about the same duties, but was practically chosen by the peasants themselves. But it seems more likely to be a hayward; the dress and attitude better suit a man in that station. The care of seeing that “repemen . . . repe besili and clenli,” was sometimes entrusted to such officers; see Skeat, “Notes to Piers the Plowman,” Early English Text Society, 1877, p. 273. A horn, such as our man bears, was always carried by haywards, who used to blow it to warn off people from straying in the crops. The rough and commanding attitude seen in the drawing would not be so readily expected from a bailiff with his juridical knowledge and comparatively high function, or from a provost appointed by the peasants themselves, as from a hayward or _garde champêtre_ • 267

51. In the stocks. A woman and a monk are put into them; a gentleman abuses them. From the MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 187, where it forms part of a series of drawings illustrating a _fabliau_ of the same sort as the one alluded to above (illustration No. 28). It is called, _Du soucretain et de la fame au chevalier_; the author is Rutebeuf, and it may be found in the works of this the most famous of the French thirteenth-century poets (ed. Jubinal, or ed. Kressner) • 272

52. Stocks at Shalford, near Guildford; present state, a drawing by Aug. de Blignières • 274

53. Beggars. A cripple and other beggars helped by a generous king to his own garments. From the MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 261 _b_ • 275

54. A friar (Chaucer’s friar). From the Ellesmere MS. “And it shall be lawful for such as shall be compelled by necessity to be shod, . . . and they are not to ride unless some manifest necessity or infirmity oblige them.” “The rule of the Friars Minors,” Dugdale’s “Monasticon,” 1817, vol. vi. part iii. p. 1504 • 283

55. “When Adam delved and Eve span”—the text of John Ball’s harangue (same idea in Wace’s “Roman de Rou,” l. 6027), illustrated from the early fourteenth-century MS., 2 B. vii., 4 _b_, in the British Museum. (English) • 287

56. A worldly ecclesiastic—

“Ful wel biloved and familiar was he . . . with worthie wommen.”

(Prologue of the “Canterbury Tales”). From the MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 185. Belongs to the same story as No. 48 • 292

57. Psalm singing. The interior of a friars’ church. From the MS. Domit. A. xvii., fol. 120 _b_, in the British Museum, early fifteenth century. The splendour of this church, with its beautiful pavement, its sculptured stalls, altar, roof, and pinnacles, very exactly tallies with the contemporary criticisms against the wealth of the friars, and may be taken as an illustration of the very words of Wyclif and Langland • 299

58. Sprinkling people at dinner with holy water. From the MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 108 _b_ • 304

59. A game of fox and geese. From the MS. 10 E. IV., fol. 49 _b_ • 312

60. Reading in Canterbury cathedral of a fabricated papal bull granting pardons to those who will help Henry of Lancaster against King Richard II. From the MS. Harl. 1319, fol. 12 _a_, containing the chronicle of Créton; see _supra_ No. 14. The archbishop, Thomas Arundel, the same who led Henry IV to the empty throne, shown in No. 15, is represented saying: “My good people, hearken all of you here. You well know how the King most wrongfully and without reason banished your lord Henry; I have therefore obtained of the Holy Father who is our patron, that those that shall forthwith bring aid this day, shall every one of them have remission of all sins. . . . Behold the sealed bull that the Pope of renowned Rome hath sent me, my good friends, in behalf of you all.” John Webb’s translation of Créton’s chronicle, “Archæologia,” vol. xx. • 319

61. A pardoner (Chaucer’s pardoner)—

“A vernicle hadde he sowed on his cappe, His walet lay byforn him in his lappe Bret-ful of pardoun come from Rome al hoot.”

From the Ellesmere MS. of the “Canterbury Tales” • 336

62. Rocamadour, general view. From a photograph, obtained through the kindness of Canon Laporte, of Rocamadour • 338

63. A pilgrim. From the MS. 17 C. xxxviii, fol. 39, in the British Museum; travels of Mandeville, English, fifteenth century • 369

64. The fortified entrance to the sanctuaries of Rocamadour, built in the eleventh century, recently restored. From a photograph obtained as above, No. 62 • 373

65. Travelling by sea. From the MS. Harl. 1319, fol. 7 _b_. The subject is the return of Richard II from Ireland to England • 377

66. The southern entrance to St. James of Compostela, twelfth century, “Plaza de las Platerias” (silversmiths). The present cathedral, replacing an older one, destroyed by the Moors, was begun in the middle of the eleventh century, and dedicated in 1211 • 381

67. A sample of Pilgrims’ signs, as sold to them at Walsingham; from the original in the British Museum • 418

68. A blind beggar and his boy. The trick played upon the blind man by his boy is well known as being one of the incidents in the first chapter of the sixteenth-century Spanish novel, “Lazarillo de Tormes.” It has long been suspected that the materials for this chapter were drawn by the Spanish author from an earlier tale. This drawing and several others that follow it, never adverted to with reference to “Lazarillo de Tormes,” put the fact beyond a doubt; they tell in their way the same tale, and they are of the first part of the fourteenth century. MS. 10 E. IV., in the British Museum, fol. 217 _b_; see above No. 30 • 419

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English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages (Fourteenth Century)

INTRODUCTION

“_O, dist Spadassin, voici un bon resveux; mais allons nous cacher au coin de la cheminée et là passons avec les dames nostre vie et nostre temps à enfiler des perles ou à filer comme Sardanapalus. Qui ne s’adventure n’a cheval ni mule, ce dist Salomon._”

VIE DE GARGANTUA.

At the present day there are but few wayfarers. The small trades plyed along the road, in every chance village, are disappearing before our newer methods of wholesale manufacture; more and more rarely do we see the pedlar unstrap his pack at the farm door, the travelling cobbler mend by the wayside the shoes which on Sunday will replace the wooden clogs, or hear the wandering musician drone at the windows his oft rehearsed tunes. Professional pilgrims exist no longer, even quack doctors are losing their credit. It was far otherwise in the Middle Ages; many people were bound to a wandering existence, and started even from childhood on their life-long journey. Some trotted their strange industries in the broad sunshine, through the dust of the highroads; others skulked in bye-lanes or {24} even in coppices, hiding their heads from the sheriff’s officer—may be a criminal, may be a fugitive, “a wolf’s head that anyone may cut down,” according to the terrible expression of an English jurist of the thirteenth century. Among these, many labourers who had broken the villeins bond, unhappy and oppressed in their hamlets, and who wandered through the country in quest of work, as though flight could enfranchise them: but “service est en le sank” (“service is in the blood”), the magistrate warned them.[1] Among them also, pedlars laden with petty wares; pilgrims who from St. Thomas’ to St. James’ went begging along the roads, living by alms; pardoners, those strange nomads, who sold to the common people the merits of the saints in paradise; mendicant friars and preachers of all sorts who, according to the times, delivered ardently liberal harangues or contemptibly selfish discourses at the church doors. All these had one character in common, namely, that in the wide extent of country where they passed their lives, ever on the move, they served as links between the separated groups of other men who, attached to the soil by law or custom, spent the whole of their days, irremovable, under the same sky, on the same ground, at the same toil.

Pursuing their singular work, these wanderers, who had seen and experienced so much, served to give some idea of the great unknown world to the humble classes whom they met on their way. Together with many false beliefs and fables they put into the heads of the stay-at-homes certain notions of extent and of active life which these would hardly otherwise have acquired; above all, they brought to the land-bound men news of their brethren in the neighbouring province, of their condition of misery or of happiness, and these were pitied {25} or envied accordingly, and remembered as brothers or friends to call upon in the day of revolt.

At a period when, for the mass of mankind, ideas were transmitted orally and travelled with these wanderers along the roads, the nomads served as a link between the human groups of various districts. It would be therefore of great interest for the historian to know what were these channels of the popular thought, what life was led by those who filled such a function, what were their influence and manners. We shall try to study the chief types of this race, and shall choose them in England in the fourteenth century, in a country and at an epoch when their social importance was considerable. The interest which attaches to them is of course manifold; the personality of these pardoners, professional pilgrims, and minstrels, extinct species, is in itself curious to scrutinize; but not more so than their state of mind and the mode in which they carried on their businesses, both reacting on the social condition of a great people which had just been formed and was acquiring the features and the character still its own at the present day. It was the period when, thanks to the French wars and the incessant embarrassments of royalty, the subjects of Edward III and of Richard II gained a parliament similar to that which we now see; the period when, in religious life, the independence of the English spirit asserted itself through the reforms of Wyclif, the statutes for the clergy, and the protests of the Good Parliament; when, in literature, Chaucer inaugurated the series of England’s great poets, and instead of one more commonplace dream, Langland, like Dante, gave to his compatriots _Visions_; when, in short, from noble to villein was felt a stir which led without excessive revolution to that true liberty for which we, the French, had long to envy our neighbours. This epoch is decisive in the history of the country. It will be seen that in all the great questions debated in the cloister, in the castle, {26} or on the market-place, the part played by the wayfarers, though scarcely visible at times, was not insignificant.

We must first examine the place of the scene, afterwards the events that happened there; see what were the roads, then what were the beings who frequented them.

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