Chapter 9

The history of this part of speech is very brief. As there are but two articles, _a_ or _an_ and _the_, you will know them wherever they occur.

A noun used without an article, or any other restrictive, is taken in its _general_ sense; as, _"Fruit_ is abundant;" "_Gold_ is heavy;" "_Man_ is born to trouble" Here we mean, fruit and gold _in general;_ and _all men_, or _mankind_.

When we wish to limit the meaning of the noun to _one_ object, but to no _particular_ one, we employ _a_ or _an_. If I say, "Give me _a_ pen;" "Bring me _an_ apple;" you are at liberty to fetch _any_ pen or _any_ apple you please. _A_ or _an_, then, is _indefinite_, because it leaves the meaning of the noun to which it is applied, as far as regards the person spoken to, _vague_, or _indeterminate_; that is, _not definite_. But when reference is made to a _particular_ object, we employ _the_, as, "Give me _the_ pen;" "Bring me _the_ apple, or _the_ apple." When such a requisition is made, you are not at liberty to bring any pen or apple you please, but you must fetch the _particular_ pen or apple to which you know me to refer. _The_ is, therefore, called the _definite_ article.

"_A_ star appears." Here, the star referred to, may be known as a _particular_ star, _definite_, and distinguished from all others, in the mind of the _speaker_; but to the _hearer_, it is left, among the thousands that bedeck the vault of heaven, _undistinguished_ and _indefinite_. But when the star has previously been made the subject of discourse, it becomes, in the minds of both speaker and hearer a _definite_ object, and he says, "_The_ star appears;" that is, that _particular_ star about which we were discoursing.

"Solomon built _a_ temple." Did he build _any_ temple, _undetermined which?_ No; it was a _particular_ temple, pre-eminently distinguished from all others. But _how_ does it become a definite object in the mind of the _hearer_? Certainly, not by the phrase, "_a_ temple," which indicates _any_ temple, leaving it altogether _undetermined_ which; but supposing the person addressed was totally unacquainted with the fact asserted, and it becomes to him, _in one respect only_, a definite and particular temple, by means of the associated words, "Solomon built;" that is, by the use of these words in connexion with the others, the hearer gets the idea of a temple distinguished as _the one erected by Solomon_. If the speaker were addressing one whom he supposed to be unacquainted with the fact related, he might make the temple referred to a still more definite object in the mind of the hearer by a farther explanation of it; thus, "Solomon built _a_ temple _on mount Zion_; and that was _the_ temple _to which the Jews resorted to worship_."

"_The_ lunatic, _the_ poet, and _the_ lover, Are of imagination all compact."

"_The_ horse is a noble animal;" "_The_ dog is a faithful creature;" "_The_ wind blows;" "_The_ wolves were howling in _the_ woods." In these examples, we do not refer to any particular lunatics, poets, lovers, horses, dogs, winds, wolves, and woods, but we refer to these _particular classes_ of things, in contradistinction to other objects or classes. The phrase, "Neither _the_ one nor _the_ other," is an idiom of the language.

REMARKS.--This method of elucidating the articles, which is popular with Blair, Priestley, Lowth, Johnson, Harris, Beattie, Coote, Murray, and many other distinguished philologists, is discarded by some of our modern writers. But, by proving that this theory is exceptionable, they by no means make it appear, that it ought, therefore, to be rejected.

Exceptionable or not, they have not been able to supply its place with one that is more _convenient in practice_. Neither have they adopted one _less_ exceptionable. The truth is, after all which can be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar comprehensive and accurate, they will still be found, when critically examined by men of learning and science, more or less exceptionable. These exceptions and imperfections are the unavoidable consequence of the imperfections of the language. Language, as well as every thing else of human invention, will always be _imperfect_. Consequently, a _perfect_ system of grammatical principles, would not suit it. A _perfect_ grammar will not be produced, until some _perfect_ being writes it for a _perfect_ language; and a perfect language will not be constructed, until some _super-human_ agency is employed in its production. All grammatical principles and systems which are not _perfect_, are _exceptionable_.

NOTES.

1. The article is _omitted_ before nouns implying the different virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c.; as, "_Modesty_ is becoming; _Falsehood_ is odious; _Grammar_ is useful," &c.

2. The article is not prefixed to proper nouns; as, _Barron_ killed _Decatur_; except by way of eminence, or for the sake of distinguishing a particular family, or when some noun is understood; as, "He is not _a_ Franklin; He is _a_ Lee, or of the family of _the_ Lees; We sailed down _the_ (river) Missouri."

3. An _adjective_ is frequently placed between the article and the noun with which the article agrees; as, "A _good_ boy; an _industrious_ man." Sometimes the adjective precedes the article; as, "As _great_ a man as Alexander; _Such_ a shame."

4. In referring to many individuals, when we wish to bring each separately under consideration, the indefinite article is sometimes placed between the adjective _many_ and a singular noun; as, "Where _many a rosebud_ rears its blushing head;" "Full _many a flower_ is born to blush unseen."

5. The definite article _the_ is frequently applied to _adverbs_ in the comparative or superlative degree; as, "_The more_ I examine it, _the better_ I like it," "I like this _the least_ of any."

You may proceed and parse the following articles, when you shall have committed this

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING

_The order of parsing an_ Article, is--an article, and why?--definite or indefinite, and why?--with what noun does it agree?--RULE.

"He is _the_ son of _a_ king."

_The_ is an article, a word prefixed to a noun to limit its signification--definite, it limits the noun to a particular object--it belongs to the noun "son," according to

RULE 2. _The definite article_ the _belongs to nouns in the singular or plural number_.

_A_ is an article, a word placed before a noun to limit its signification--indefinite, it limits the noun to one of a kind, but to no particular one--it agrees with "king," agreeably to

RULE 1. _The article_ a _or_ an _agrees with nouns in the singular number only_.

NOTE. By considering the original meaning of this article, the propriety of Rule 1, will appear. _A_ or _an_, (formerly written _ane,)_ being equivalent to _one, any one_, or _some one_, cannot be prefixed to nouns in the plural number. There is, however, an exception to this rule. _A_ is placed before a plural noun when any of the following adjectives come between the article and the noun: _few, great, many, dozen, hundred, thousand, million_; as, _a_ few _men, a_ thousand _houses_, &c.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

A bird sings. An eagle flies. Mountains stand. The multitude pursue pleasure. The reaper reaps the farmer's grain. Farmers mow the grass. Farmers' boys spread the hay. The clerk sells the merchant's goods. An ostrich outruns an Arab's horse. Cecrops founded Athens. Gallileo invented the telescope. James Macpherson translated Ossian's poems. Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe. Doctor Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. Washington Irving wrote the Sketch-Book.

I will now offer a few remarks on the misapplication of the articles, which, with the exercise of your own discriminating powers, will enable you to use them with propriety. But, before you proceed, please to answer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

How many articles are there?--In what sense is a noun taken, when it has no article to limit it?--Repeat the _order_ of parsing an article.--What rule applies in parsing the _definite_ article?--What rule in parsing the _indefinite_?

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PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

A, AN, THE.

In a scientific arrangement of grammatical principles, _a_ and _the_ belong to that class of adjectives denominated _definitives_ or _restrictives_.

_A, an, ane_, or _one_, is the past participle of _ananad_, to add, to join. It denotes that the thing to which it is prefixed, is _added, united, aned, an-d, oned, (woned,)_ or made _one_.

_The_ and _that_. According to Horne Tooke, _the_ is the imperative, and _that_, the past participle, of the Anglo-Saxon verb _thean_, to get, take, assume. _The_ and _that_ had, originally, the same meaning. The difference in their present application, is a modern refinement. Hence, _that_, as well as _the_, was formerly used, indifferently, before either a singular or a plural noun.

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QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.

Before what nouns is the article omitted?--Is the article _the_ ever applied to adverbs?--Give examples.--What is the meaning of _a_ or _an_? --When is _a_ or _an_ placed before a plural noun?--From what are _a, the_, and _that_ derived?

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

NOTE TO RULE 1. _An_ is used before a vowel or silent _h_, and _a_ before a consonant or _u_ long, and also before the word _one_.

It is not only disagreeable to the ear, but, according to this note, improper to say, _a_ apple, _a_ humble suppliant, _an_ hero, _an_ university, because the word _apple_ begins with a vowel, and _h_ is not sounded in the word _humble_, for which reasons _a_ should be _an_ in the first two examples; but, as the _h_ is sounded in _hero_, and the _u_ is long in _university, a_ ought to be prefixed to these words: thus, _an_ apple, _an_ humble suppliant: _a_ hero, _a_ university. You may correct the following

EXAMPLES.

A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, an horse, an herald, an heart, an heathen, an union, a umbrella, an useful book, many an one. This is an hard saying. They met with an heavy loss. He would not give an hat for an horse.

NOTE 1, TO RULE 2. The articles are often properly omitted: when used they should be justly applied, according to their distinct character; as, "Gold is corrupting; _The_ sea is green; _A_ lion is bold." It would be improper to say, _The_ gold is corrupting; Sea is green; Lion is bold.

The grass is good for horses, and the wheat for men. Grass is good for the horses, and wheat for the men. Grass looks well. Wheat is blighted.

In the first of these sentences, we are not speaking of any particular kind of _grass_ or _wheat_, neither do we wish to limit the meaning to any particular crop or field of grass, or quantity of wheat; but we are speaking of grass and wheat generally, therefore the article _the_ should be omitted. In the second sentence, we do not refer to any definite kind, quality, or number of _horses_ or _men_; but to horses and men generally; that is, the terms are here used to denote _whole species_, therefore, the article should be omitted, and the sentence should read thus, "Grass is good for horses, and wheat for men."

In the third and fourth examples, we wish to limit our meaning to the crops of _grass_ and _wheat_ now on the ground, which, in contradistinction to the crops heretofore raised, are considered as _particular_ objects; therefore we should say, "_The_ grass looks well; _The_ wheat is blighted."

NOTE 2. When a noun is used in its _general_ sense, the article should be omitted; as, "_Poetry_ is a pleasing art;" "_Oranges_ grow in New Orleans."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Corn in the garden, grows well; but corn in the field, does not. How does the tobacco sell? The tobacco is dear. How do you like the study of the grammar? The grammar is a pleasing study. A candid temper is proper for the man. World is wide. The man is mortal. And I persecuted this way unto the death. The earth, the air, the fire, and the water, are the four elements of the old philosophers.

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LECTURE IV.

OF ADJECTIVES.

An ADJECTIVE is a word added to a noun to express its quality or kind, or to restrict its meaning; as, a _good_ man, a _bad_ man, _a free_ man, an _unfortunate_ man, _one_ man, _forty_ men.

In the phrases, a _good_ apple, a _bad_ apple, a _large_ apple, a _small_ apple, a _red_ apple, a _white_ apple, a _green_ apple, a _sweet_ apple, a _sour_ apple, a _bitter_ apple, a _round_ apple, a _hard_ apple, a _soft_ apple, a _mellow_ apple, a _fair_ apple, a _May_ apple, an _early_ apple, a _late_ apple, a _winter_ apple, a _crab_ apple, a _thorn_ apple, a _well-tasted_ apple, an _ill-looking_ apple, a _water-cored_ apple, you perceive that all those words in _italics_ are adjectives, because each expresses some quality or property of the noun apple, or it shows what _kind_ of an apple it is of which we are speaking.

The distinction between a _noun_ and an _adjective_ is very clear. A noun is the _name_ of a thing; but an adjective denotes simply the _quality_ or _property_ of a thing. This is _fine cloth_. In this example, the difference between the word denoting the _thing_, and that denoting the _quality_ of it, is easily perceived. You certainly cannot be at a loss to know, that the word _cloth_ expresses the _name_, and _fine_, the _quality_, of the _thing_; consequently _fine_ must be an _adjective_. If I say, He is a _wise_ man, a _prudent_ man, a _wicked_ man, or an _ungrateful_ man, the words in _italics_ are adjectives, because each expresses a _quality_ of the noun man. And, if I say, He is a _tall_ man, a _short_ man, a _white_ man, a _black_ man, or a _persecuted_ man, the words, _tall, short, white, black_, and _persecuted_, are also adjectives, because they tell what _kind_ of a man he is of whom I am speaking, or they attribute to him some particular property.

Some adjectives _restrict_ or _limit_ the signification of the nouns to which they are joined, and are, therefore, sometimes called _definitives_; as, _one_ era, _seven_ ages, the _first_ man, the _whole_ mass, _no_ trouble, _those_ men, _that_ book, _all_ regions.

Other adjectives _define_ or _describe_ nouns, or do both; as, _fine_ silk, _blue_ paper, a _heavy_ shower, _pure_ water, _green_ mountains, _bland_ breezes, _gurgling_ rills, _glass_ window, _window_ glass, _beaver_ hats, _chip_ bonnets, _blackberry_ ridge, _Monroe_ garden, _Juniata_ iron, _Cincinnati_ steam-mill.

Some adjectives are _secondary_, and qualify other adjectives; as, _pale_ red lining, _dark_ blue silk, _deep sea_ green sash, _soft_ iron blooms, _red hot_ iron plate.

You will frequently find the adjective placed after the noun; as, "Those _men_ are _tall_; A _lion_ is _bold_; The _weather_ is _calm_; The _tree_ is three feet _thick_."

Should you ever be at a loss to distinguish an adjective from the other parts of speech, the following sign will enable you to tell it. Any word that will make sense with the word _thing_ added, or with any other noun following it, is an adjective; as, a _high_ thing, a _low_ thing, a _hot_ thing, a _cold_ thing, an _unfinished_ thing, a _new-fashioned_ thing:--or, a _pleasant_ prospect, a _long-deserted_ dwelling, an _American_ soldier, a _Greek_ Testament. Are these words adjectives, _distant, yonder, peaceful, long-sided, double-headed?_ A distant _object_ or _thing_, yonder _hill_, &c. They are. They will make sense with a noun after them. Adjectives sometimes become adverbs. This matter will be explained in Lecture VI. In parsing, you may generally know an adjective by its _qualifying a noun or pronoun_.

Most words ending in _ing_ are _present participles_. These are frequently used as adjectives; therefore, most participles will make sense with the addition of the word thing, or any other noun, after them; as, a _pleasing_ thing, a _moving_ spectacle, _mouldering_ ruins.

In the Latin language, and many others, adjectives, like nouns, have gender, number, and case; but in the English language, they have neither gender, person, number, nor case. These properties belong to _creatures_ and _things_, and not to their _qualities_; therefore gender, person, number, and case, are the properties of _nouns_, and _not_ of adjectives.

Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison. They have three degrees of comparison, the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.

The _positive degree_ expresses the quality of an object without any increase or diminution; as, _good, wise, great_.

The _comparative degree_ increases or lessens the positive in signification; as, _better, wiser, greater, less wise_.

The _superlative degree_ increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree; as, _best, wisest, greatest, least wise_.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

_More_ and _most_ form the comparative and superlative degrees by increasing the positive; and _less_ and _least_, by diminishing it.

Comparison by increasing the positive

_Pos._ _Comp._ _Sup._ great, greater, greatest. wise, wiser, wisest. holy, more holy most holy. frugal, more frugal most frugal.

Comparison by diminishing the positive.

_Pos._ _Comp._ _Sup._ wise, less wise least wise. holy, less holy, least holy. frugal, less frugal, least frugal.

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.

Words used in counting, are called _numeral adjectives_ of the _cardinal_ kind; as, _one, two, three, four, twenty, fifty,_ &c.

Words used in numbering, are called _numeral adjectives_ of the _ordinal_ kind; as, _first, second, third, fourth, twentieth, fiftieth,_ &c.

NOTE. The words _many, few_, and _several_, as they always refer to an indefinite number, may be properly called _numeral adjectives_ of the indefinite kind.

NOTES.

1. The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Comparative by adding _r_, or _er_; and the Positive becomes the Superlative, by adding _st_, or _est_, to the end of it; as, Pos. wise, Com. wise_r_, Sup. wise_st_; rich, rich_er_, rich_est_; bold, bold_er_, bold_est_. The adverbs, _more_ and _most, less_ and _least_, when placed before the adjective, have the same effect; as, Pos. wise, Com. _more_ wise, Sup. _most_ wise; Pos. wise, Com. _less_ wise, Sup. _least_ wise.

2. _Monosyllables_ are generally compared by adding _er_ and _est; dissyllables, trisyllables_, &c. by _more_ and _most_; as, mild, milder, mildest; frugal, more frugal, most frugal; virtuous, more virtuous, most virtuous. Dissyllables ending in _y_; as, happy, lovely; and in _le_ after a mute; as, able, ample; and dissyllables accented on the last syllable; as, discreet, polite; easily admit of _er_ and _est_; as, happi_er_, happi_est_; polit_er_, _polit_est_. Words of more than two syllables very seldom admit of these terminations.

3. When the positive ends in _d_, or _t_, preceded by a _single_ vowel, the consonant is doubled in forming the comparative and superlative degrees; as red, _redder, reddest_; hot, _hotter, hottest_.

4. In some words the superlative is formed by adding _most_ to the end of them; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost, uppermost, foremost.

5. In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very common use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better of analogy,) that are irregular in forming the degrees of comparison; as, "Good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least; much or many, more, most; near, nearer, nearest or next; late, later, latest or last; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest;" and a few others.

6. The following adjectives, and many others, are always in the _superlative_ degree, because, by expressing a quality in the highest degree, they carry in themselves a superlative signification: _chief, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, honest, just, true, correct, sincere, vast, immense, ceaseless, infinite, endless, unparalleled, universal, supreme, unlimited, omnipotent, all-wise, eternal_.

7. Compound adjectives, and adjectives denoting qualities arising from the figure of bodies, do not admit of comparison; such as, _well-formed, frost-bitten, round, square, oblong, circular, quadrangular, conical_, &c.

8. The termination _ish_ added to adjectives, expresses a slight degree of quality below the comparative; as, _black, blackish; salt, saltish. Very_, prefixed to the comparative, expresses a degree of quality, but not always a superlative degree.

Read this Lecture carefully, particularly the NOTES; after which you may parse the following adjectives and neuter verb, and, likewise, the examples that follow. If you cannot repeat all the definitions and rules, spread the Compendium when you parse. But before you proceed, please to commit the

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing an_ ADJECTIVE, is--an adjective, and why?--compare it--degree of comparison, and why?--to what noun does it belong?--RULE.

That _great_ nation _was_ once _powerful_; but now it is _feeble_.

_Great_ is an adjective, a word added to a noun to express its quality--pos. great, com. greater, sup. greatest--it is in the positive degree, it expresses the quality of an object without any increase or diminution, and belongs to the noun "nation," according to

RULE 18. _Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or understood_.

_Was_ is a verb, a word that signifies to be--neuter, it expresses neither action nor passion, but being or a state of being--third person singular, because its nominative "nation" is a noun of multitude conveying _unity_ of idea--it agrees with "nation," agreeably to RULE 10. _A noun of multitude conveying_ unity _of idea, may have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the_ singular.

_Powerful_ is an adjective belonging to "nation," according to Rule 18. _Feeble_ belongs to "it," according to Note 1, under Rule 18. _Is_ is a neuter verb agreeing with "it," agreeably to Rule 4.

"Bonaparte entered Russia with 400,000 men."

_Four-hundred-thousand_ is a numeral adjective of the cardinal kind, it is a word used in counting, and belongs to the noun "men," according to Note 2, under Rule 18. _Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in number with their adjectives_.

If, in parsing the following examples, you find any words about which you are at a loss, you will please to turn back, and parse all the foregoing examples again. This course will enable you to proceed without any difficulty.

_More_ is an adverb. _Of_ and _to_ are prepositions, governing the nouns that follow them in the objective case.

EXERCISES IN PARSING. A benevolent man helps indigent beggars. Studious scholars learn many long lessons. Wealthy merchants own large ships. The heavy ships bear large burdens; the lighter ships carry less burdens. Just poets use figurative language. Ungrammatical expressions offend a true critic's ear. Weak critics magnify trifling errors. No composition is perfect. The rabble was tumultuous. The late-washed grass looks green. Shady trees form a delightful arbor. The setting sun makes a beautiful appearance; the variegated rainbow appears more beautiful. Epaminondas was the greatest of the Theban generals; Pelopidas was next to Epaminondas.

The first fleet contained three hundred men; the second contained four thousand. The earth contains one thousand million inhabitants. Many a cheering ray brightens the good man's pathway.