Chapter 6

I have told you, that when the nominative is singular number, the verb must be; when the nominative is plural, the verb must be; and when the nominative is first, second, or third person, the verb must be of the same person. If you look again at the foregoing conjugation of _walk_, you will notice that the verb varies if its endings in the _singular_, in order to agree in _form_ with the first, second, and third person of its nominative; but in the _plural_ it does not vary its endings from the first person singular. The verb, however, agrees in _sense_ with its nominative in the plural, as well as in the singular. Exercise a little mind, and you will perceive that _agreement_ and _government_ in language do not consist _merely_ in the _form_ of words. Now, is it not clear, that when I say, I _walk_, the verb walk is _singular_, because it expresses but _one_ action? And when I say, Two men _walk_, is it not equally apparent, that walk is _plural_, because it expresses _two_ actions? In the sentence, Ten men _walk_, the verb _walk_ denotes _ten_ actions, for there are ten actors. Common sense teaches you, that there must be as many _actions_ as there are _actors_; and that the verb, when it has _no form_ or _ending_ to show it, is as strictly plural, as when it has.--So, in the phrase, _We_ walk, the verb walk is _first_ person, because it expresses the actions performed by the _speakers: Ye_ or _you_ walk, the verb is _second_ person, denoting the actions of the persons _spoken to;_ third person, _They_ walk. The verb, then, when correctly written, always agrees, in _sense_, with its nominative in number and person.

At present you are learning two parts of speech, neither of which can be understood without a knowledge of the other. It therefore becomes necessary to explain them both, in the same lecture. You have been already informed, that nouns have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

POSSESSIVE CASE. The _possessive case_ denotes the possessor of something; as, This is _John's_ horse. This expression implies, that _John_ is the _owner_ or _possessor_ of the horse; and, that horse is the _property_ which he possesses.

When I say, These are the _men's_, and those, the _boys'_ hats, the two words, "boys' hats," plainly convey the idea, if they have any meaning at all, that the boys _own_ or _possess_ the hats. "Samuel Badger sells _boys'_ hats." Who _owns_ the hats? Mr. Badger. How is that fact ascertained? Not by the words, "boys' hats," which, taken by themselves, imply, not that they are _Mr. Badger's_ hats, nor that they are _for_ boys, but that they are hats _of_, or _belonging to_, or _possessed by_ boys. But we _infer_ from the _words connected_ with the phrase, "boys' hats," that the boys are not yet, as the phrase literally denotes, in the actual possession of the hats. The possession is anticipated.

In the phrases, _fine_ hats, _coarse_ hats, _high-crowned_ hats, _broad-brimmed_ hats, _woollen, new, ten, some, these, many_ hats, the words in italics, are adjectives, because they restrict, qualify, or define the term _hats;_ but the term _boys'_ does not _describe_ or limit the meaning of _hats. Boys'_, therefore, is not, as some suppose, an adjective.

"The _slave's_ master." Does the slave possess the master? Yes. The slave _has_ a master. If he _has_ him, then, he _possesses_ him;--he sustains that relation to him which we call possession.

A noun in the possessive case, is always known by its having an apostrophe, and generally an _s_ after it; thus, _John's_, hat; the _boy's_ coat. When a plural noun in the possessive case, ends in _s_, the apostrophe is added, but no additional _s_; as, "_Boys'_ hats; _Eagles'_ wings." When a singular noun ends in _ss_, the apostrophe only is added; as, "For _goodness'_ sake; for _righteousness'_ sake;" except the word witness; as, "The _witness's_ testimony." When a noun in the possessive case ends in _ence_, the _s_ is omitted, but the apostrophe is retained; as, "For _conscience'_ sake."

Now please to turn back, and read over this and the preceding lecture _three_ times, and endeavor, not only to understand, but, also, to _remember_, what you read. In reading, proceed thus: read one sentence over slowly, and then look off the book, and repeat it two or three times over in your mind. After that, take another sentence and proceed in the same manner, and so on through the whole lecture. Do not presume to think, that these directions are of no real consequence to you; for, unless you follow them strictly, you need not expect to make rapid progress. On the other hand, if you proceed according to my instructions, you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of grammar in a short time.--When you shall have complied with this requisition, you may commit the following _order of parsing a noun_, and _the order of parsing a verb_; and then you will be prepared to parse or analyze the following examples.

ANALYSIS, OR PARSING.

Do you recollect the meaning of the word _analysis?_ If you do not, I will explain if: and first, I wish you to remember, that analysis is the reverse of synthesis. _Synthesis_ is the act of combining simples so as to form a whole or compound. Thus, in putting together letters so as to form syllables, syllables so as to form words, words so as to form sentences, and sentences so as to form a discourse, the process is called synthetic. _Analysis_, on the contrary, is the act of decomposition; that is, the act of separating any thing compounded into its simple parts, and thereby exhibiting its elementary principles. Etymology treats of the analysis of language. To analyze a sentence, is to separate from one another and classify the different words of which it is composed; and to analyze or _parse_ a word, means to enumerate and describe all its various properties, and its grammatical relations with respect to other words in a sentence, and trace it through all its inflections or changes. Perhaps, to you, this will, at first, appear to be of little importance; but, if you persevere, you will hereafter find it of great utility, for parsing will enable you to detect, and correct, errors in composition.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

The _order of parsing_ a NOUN, is--a noun, and why?--common, proper, or collective, and why?--gender, and why?--person, and why?--number, and why?--case, and why?--RULE:--decline it.

_The order of parsing_ a VERB, is--a verb, and why?--active, passive, or neuter, and why?--if _active_--transitive or intransitive, and why?--if _passive_--how is it formed?--regular, irregular, or defective, and why?--mood, and why?--tense, and why?--person and number, and why?--with what does it agree?--RULE:--conjugate it.

I will now parse two nouns according to the order, and, in so doing, by applying the definitions and rules, I shall answer all those questions given in the order. If you have _perfectly committed_ the order of parsing a noun and verb, you may proceed with me; but, recollect, you cannot parse a verb _in full_, until you shall have had a more complete explanation of it.

_John's hand trembles_.

_John's_ is a noun, [because it is] the name of a person--proper, the name of an individual--masculine gender, it denotes a male--third person, spoken of--singular number, it implies but one--and in the possessive case, it denotes possession--it is governed by the noun "hand," according to

RULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun it possesses_.

Declined--Sing. nom. John, poss. John's, obj. John. Plural--nom. Johns, poss. Johns', obj. Johns.

_Hand_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, the name of a sort or species of things--neuter gender, it denotes a thing without sex--third person, spoken of--sing. number, it implies but one--and in the nominative case, it is the actor and subject of the verb "trembles," and governs it agreeably to

RULE 3. _The nominative case governs the verb:_--that is, the nominative determines the number and person of the verb.

Declined--Sing. nom. hand, poss. hand's, obj. hand. Plur. nom. hands, poss. hands', obj. hands.

_Trembles_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do--active, it expresses action--third person, singular number, because the nominative "hand" is with which it agrees, according to

RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person_.

You must not say that the verb is of the third person because _it is spoken of_. The verb is never spoken of; but it is of the third person, and singular or plural number, because its nominative is.

Conjugated--First pers. sing. I tremble, 2 pers. thou tremblest, 3 pers. he trembles, or, the hand trembles. Plural, 1 pers. we tremble, 2 pers. ye or you tremble, 3 pers. they or the hands tremble.

Government, in language, consists in the power which one word has over another, in causing that other word to be in some _particular case, number, person, mood_, or _tense_.

ILLUSTRATION.

RULE 3. _The nominative case governs the verb_.

If you employ the pronoun _I_, which is of the _first_ person, singular number, as the nominative to a verb, the verb must be of the first pers. sing, thus, I _smile_; and when your nominative is _second_ pers. sing, your verb must be; as, thou smil_est_. Why, in the latter instance, does the ending of the verb change to _est_? Because the nominative changes. And if your nominative is _third_ person, the verb will vary again; thus, he smiles, the man smiles. How clear it is, then, that _the nominative governs the verb_; that is, the nominative has power to change the _form_ and _meaning_ of the verb, in respect to num. and person. Government, thus far, is evinced in the _form_ of the words, as well as in the sense.

RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person_.

It is improper to say, thou _hear_, the men _hears_. Why improper? Because _hear_ is _first_ pers. and the nominative _thou_ is _second_ pers. _Hears_ is singular, and the nom. _men_ is _plural_. Rule 4th says, _The verb must agree with its nominative_. The expressions should, therefore, be, thou hear_est_, the men _hear_; and then the verb would _agree_ with its nominatives. But _why_ must the verb agree with its nominative? Why must we say, thou talk_est_, the man talks, men _talk_? Because the genius of our language, and the common consent of those who speak it, _require_ such a construction: and this _requisition_ amounts to a _law_ or _rule_. This _rule_, then, is founded in _the nature of things_, and sanctioned by _good usage_.

RULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun which it possesses_.

It is correct to say, The _man_ eats, _he_ eats; but we cannot say, the _man_ dog eats, _he_ dog eats. Why not? Because the man is here represented as the _possessor_, and _dog_, the _property_, or _thing possessed_; and the genius of our language requires, that when we add to the possessor, the _thing_ which he is represented as possessing, the possessor shall take a particular form to show its _case_, or _relation to the property_; thus, The _man's_ dog eats, _his_ dog eats. You perceive, then, that the _added_ noun, denoting the thing possessed, has power _to change the form_ of the noun or pronoun denoting the possessor, according to RULE 12. thus, by adding dog in the preceding examples, _man_ is changed to _man's_, and _he_, to _his_.

Now parse the sentence which I have parsed, until the manner is quite familiar to you; and then you will be prepared to analyze correctly and _systematically_, the following exercises. When you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you; and, if you have not already committed the definitions and rules, you may read them on that, as you apply them. This mode of procedure will enable you to learn _all_ the definitions and rules by applying them to practice.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Rain descends--Rains descend--Snow falls--Snows fall--Thunder rolls--Thunders roll--Man's works decay--Men's labors cease--John's dog barks--Eliza's voice trembles--Julia's sister's child improves--Peter's cousin's horse limps.

In the next place, I will parse a noun and a _neuter_ verb, which verb, you will notice, differs from an active only in one respect.

_"Birds repose_ on the branches of trees."

_Birds_ is a noun, the name of a thing or creature--common, the name of a genus or class--masculine and feminine gender, it denotes both males and females--third person, spoken of--plural number, it implies more than one--and in the nominative case, it is the _subject_ of the verb "repose," and governs it according to RULE 3. _The nominative case governs the verb_. Declined--Sing. nom. bird, poss. bird's, obj. bird. Plural, nom. birds, poss. birds', obj. birds.

_Repose_ is a verb, a word that signifies to _be_--neuter, it expresses neither action nor passion, but a state of being--third person, plural number, because the nominative "birds" is with which it agrees, agreeably to RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person_.

Declined--1. pers. sing. I repose, 2. pers. thou reposest, 3. pers. he reposes, or the bird reposes. Plur. 1. pers. we repose, 2. pers. ye or you repose, 3. pers. they repose, or birds repose.

Now parse those nouns and neuter verbs that are distinguished by _italics_, in the following

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

The _book lies_ on the desk--The _cloak hangs_ on the wall--_Man's days are_ few--_Cathmor's warriors sleep_ in death--_Caltho reposes_ in the narrow house--Jocund _day stands_ tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. The _sunbeams rest_ on the grave where her _beauty sleeps_.

You may parse these and the preceding exercises, and all that follow, _five or six times over_, if you please.

OBJECTIVE CASE.--ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE VERBS.

The _objective_ case expresses the object of an action or of a relation. It generally follows a transitive verb, a participle, or a preposition.

A noun is in the objective case when it is the _object_ of something. At present I shall explain this case only as the object of an _action_; but when we shall have advanced as far as to the preposition, I will also illustrate it as the object of a _relation_.

An active verb is _transitive_ when the action passes over from the subject or nominative to an object; as, Richard _strikes_ John.

_Transitive_ means _passing_. In this sentence the action of the verb _strikes_ is _transitive_, because it _passes over_ from the nominative Richard to the object John; and you know that the noun John is in the _objective_ case, because it is _the object of the action_ expressed by the active-transitive verb strikes. This matter is very plain. For example: Gallileo invented the telescope. Now it is evident, that Gallileo did not exert his powers of invention, without some object in view. In order to ascertain that object, put the question, Gallileo invented what? The telescope. _Telescope_, then, is the real object of the action, denoted by the transitive verb invented; and, therefore, telescope is in the objective case. If I say, The horse _kicks_ the servant--Carpenters _build_ houses--Ossian _wrote_ poems--Columbus _discovered_ America--you readily perceive, that the verbs _kick, build, wrote_, and _discovered_, express transitive actions; and you cannot be at a loss to tell which nouns are in the objective case:--they are _servant, houses, poems_, and _America_.

The nominative and objective cases of nouns are generally known by the following rule: the nominative _does something_; the objective _has something done to it_. The nominative generally comes _before_ the verb; and the objective, _after_ it. When I say, George struck the servant, _George_ is in the nominative, and _servant_ is in the objective case; but, when I say, The servant struck George, _servant_ is in the nominative case, and _George_ is in the objective. Thus you perceive, that _Case_ means the different state or situation of nouns with regard to other words.

It is sometimes very difficult to tell the case of a noun. I shall, therefore, take up this subject again, when I come to give you an explanation of the participle and preposition.

Besides the three cases already explained, nouns are sometimes in the nominative case _independent_, sometimes in the nominative case absolute, sometimes in apposition in the same case, and sometimes in the nominative or objective case after the neuter to _be_, or after an active-intransitive or passive verb. These cases are illustrated in Lecture X. and in the 21 and 22 rules of Syntax.

ACTIVE-INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

An active verb is _transitive_, when the action terminates on an object: but

An active verb is _intransitive_, when the action does _not_ terminate on an object; as, John _walks_.

You perceive that the verb _walks_, in this example, is _intransitive_, because the action does not pass over to an object; that is, the action is confined to the agent John. The following _sign_ will generally enable you to distinguish a _transitive_ verb from an _intransitive_. Any verb that will make sense with the words _a thing_ or _a person_, after it, is _transitive_. Try these verbs by the sign, _love, help, conquer, reach, subdue, overcome_. Thus, you can say, I love _a person_ or _thing_--I can help _a person_ or _thing_--and so on. Hence you know that these verbs are transitive. But an intransitive verb will not make sense with this sign, which fact will be shown by the following examples: _smile, go, come, play, bark, walk, fly_. We cannot say, if we mean to speak English, I smile a _person_ or _thing_--I go _a person_ or _thing_:--hence you perceive that these verbs are not transitive, but intransitive.

If you reflect upon these examples for a few moments, you will have a clear conception of the nature of transitive and intransitive verbs. Before I close this subject, however, it is necessary farther to remark, that some transitive and intransitive verbs express what is called a _mental_ or _moral_ action; and others, a _corporeal_ or _physical_ action. Verbs expressing the different affections or operations of the mind, denote moral actions; as, Brutus _loved_ his country; James _hates_ vice; We _believe_ the tale:--to _repent_, to _relent_, to _think_, to _reflect_, to _mourn_, to _muse_. Those expressing the actions produced by matter, denote physical actions; as, The _dog hears_ the bell; Virgil _wrote_ the Aenead; Columbus _discovered_ America;--to _see_, to _feel_, to _taste_, to _smell_, to _run_, to _talk_, to _fly_, to _strike_. In the sentence, Charles _resembles_ his father, the verb _resembles_ does not appear to express any action at all; yet the construction of the sentence, and the office which the verb performs, are such, that we are obliged to parse it as an _active-transitive_ verb, governing the noun _father_ in the objective case. This you may easily reconcile in your mind, by reflecting, that the verb has a _direct reference_ to its object. The following verbs are of this character: _Have, own, retain_; as, I _have_ a book.

Active _in_transitive verbs are frequently made _transitive_. When I say, The birds _fly_, the verb _fly_ is _in_transitive; but when I say, The boy _flies_ the kite, the verb _fly_ is _transitive_, and governs the noun _kite_ in the objective case. Almost any active intransitive verb, and sometimes even neuter verbs, are used as transitive. The horse _walks_ rapidly; The boy _runs_ swiftly; My friend _lives_ well; The man _died_ of a fever. In all these examples the verbs are _in_transitive; in the following they are _transitive_: The man _walks_ his horse; The boy _ran_ a race; My friend _lives_ a holy life; Let me _die_ the death of the righteous.

The foregoing development of the character of verbs, is deemed sufficiently critical for practical purposes; but if we dip a little deeper into the verbal fountain, we shall discover qualities which do not appear on its surface. If we throw aside the veil which art has drawn over the real structure of speech, we shall find, that almost every verb has either a _personal_ or a _verbal_ object, expressed or implied. Verbal objects, which are the _effects_ or _productions_ resulting from the actions, being necessarily implied, are seldom expressed.

The fire _burns_. If the fire burns, it must burn _wood, coal, tallow_, or some other combustible substance. The man _laughs_. Laughs what? Laughs _laughter_ or _laugh_. They _walk_; that is, They walk or take _walks_. Rivers flow (move or roll _them-selves_ or their _waters_) into the ocean.

"I _sing_ the shady _regions_ of the west."

"And _smile_ the _wrinkles_ from the brow of age."

The child _wept itself_ sick; and then, by taking (or _sleeping_) a short _nap_, it _slept itself_ quiet and well again. "He will soon _sleep_ his everlasting _sleep"_; that is, "He will _sleep_ the _sleep_ of death."

Thinkers think _thoughts_; Talkers talk or employ _words, talk,_ or _speeches_; The rain rains _rain_. "Upon Sodom and Gomorrah the Lord _rained fire_ and _brimstone_." "I must _go_ the whole _length_." "I shall soon _go_ the _way_ of all the earth."

Now please to turn back again, and peruse this lecture attentively; after which you may parse, systematically, the following exercises containing nouns in the three cases, and active-transitive verbs.

The printer _prints_ books.

_Prints_ is a verb, a word that signifies to do--active, it expresses action--transitive, the action passes over from the nominative "printer" to the object "books"--third pers. sing. numb. because the nominative printer is with which it agrees.

RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person_.

Declined--1. pers. sing. I print, 2. pers. thou printest, 3. pers. he prints, or the printer prints, and so on.

_Books_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, the name of a sort of things,--neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex--third pers. spoken of--plur. num. it implies more than one--and in the objective case, it is the object of the action, expressed by the active-transitive verb "prints," and is governed by it according to

RULE 20. _Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case_.

The noun _books_ is thus declined--Sing. nom. book, poss. book's, obj. book--Plur. nom. books, poss. books', obj. books.

RULE 20. Transitive verbs _govern_ the objective case; that is, they _require_ the noun or pronoun following them to be in that case; and this requisition is government. Pronouns have a particular _form_ to suit each case; but nouns have not. We cannot say, She _struck he_; I gave the book _to they_. Why not? Because the genius of our language requires the pronoun following a transitive verb or preposition (_to_ is a preposition) to assume that _form_ which we call the _objective_ form or case. Accordingly, the construction should be, She struck _him_; I gave the book to _them_.--Read, again, the illustration of "government" on page 52.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

_Nom. case.--Trans. verb--Poss. case--Obj. case._ Julius prints childrens' primers. Harriet makes ladies' bonnets. The servant beats the man's horse. The horse kicks the servant's master. The boy struck that man's child. The child lost those boys' ball. The tempest sunk those merchants' vessels. Pope translated Homer's Illiad. Cicero procured Milo's release. Alexander conquered Darius' army. Perry met the enemy's fleet. Washington obtained his country's freedom.

NOTE 1. The words _the, that, those_, and _his_, you need not parse. 2. A noun in the possessive case, is sometimes governed by a noun understood; as, Julia's lesson is longer than John's [lesson.]