Chapter 4

The following rules are deemed important in practice, although they assist us in spelling only a small portion of the words of our language. This useful art is to be chiefly acquired by studying the spelling-book and dictionary, and by strict attention in reading.

RULE I. Monosyllables ending in _f, l_, or _s_, double the final or ending consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as _staff, mill, pass_. Exceptions; _of, if, is, as, lids, was, yes, his, this, us_, and _thus_.

_False Orthography for the learner to correct_.--Be thou like the gale that moves the gras, to those who ask thy aid.--The aged hero comes forth on his staf; his gray hair glitters in the beam.--Shal mortal man be more just than God?--Few know the value of health til they lose it.--Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively refined.

And that is not the lark, whose notes do beat The vaulty heaven so high above our heads: I have more care to stay, than wil to go.

RULE II. Monosyllables ending in any consonant but _f, l_, or _s_, never double the final consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as, _man, hat_. Exceptions; _add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr_, and _buzz_.

_False Orthography_.--None ever went sadd from Fingal.--He rejoiced over his sonn.--Clonar lies bleeding on the bedd of death.--Many a trapp is set to insnare the feet of youth.

The weary sunn has made a golden sett, And, by the bright track of his golden carr, Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow.

RULE III. Words ending in _y_, form the plural of nouns, the persons of verbs, participial nouns, past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing _y_ into _i_, when the _y_ is preceded by a _consonant_; as, _spy, spies; I carry, thou carriest, he carries; carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest_.

The present participle in _ing_, retains the _y_ that _i_ may not be doubled; as, _carry, carrying_.

But when _y_ is preceded by a _vowel_, in such instances as the above, it is not changed into _i_; as, _boy, boys; I cloy, he cloys_; except in the words _lay, pay_, and _say I_ from which are formed _laid, paid_, and _said_; and their compounds, _unpaid, unsaid_, &c.

_False Orthography_.--Our fancys should be governed by reason.--Thou wearyest thyself in vain.--He denyed himself all sinful pleasures.

Win straiing souls with modesty and love; Cast none away. The truly good man is not dismaied by poverty. Ere fresh morning streak the east, we must be risen to reform yonder allies green.

RULE IV. When words ending in _y_, assume an additional syllable beginning with a consonant, the _y_, if it is preceded by a consonant, is commonly changed to _i_; as, _happy, happily, happiness_.

But when _y_ is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is very rarely changed to _i_; as, _coy, coyless; boy, boyish; boyhood; joy, joyless, joyful_.

_False Orthography_.--His mind is uninfluenced by fancyful humors.--The vessel was heavyly laden.--When we act against conscience, we become the destroiers of our own peace.

Christiana, mayden of heroic mien! Star of the north! of northern stars the queen!

RULE V. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single vowel, double that consonant when they assume another syllable that begins with a vowel; as, _wit, witty; thin, thinnish; to abet, an abetter_.

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is _not_ on the last syllable, the consonant remains single; as, _to toil, toiling; to offer, an offering; maid, maiden_.

_False Orthography_.--The business of to-day, should not be defered till to-morrow.--That law is annuled.--When we have outstriped our errors we have won the race.--By defering our repentance, we accumulate our sorrows.--The Christian Lawgiver has prohibited many things which the heathen philosophers allowed.

At summer eve, when heaven's aerial bow Spans with bright arch the glitterring hills below.-- Thus mourned the hapless man; a thunderring sound Rolled round the shudderring walls and shook the ground.

RULE VI. Words ending in double _l_, in taking _ness, less, ly_, or _ful_, after them, generally omit one _l_; as, _fulness, skilless, fully skilful_.

But words ending in any double letter but _l_, and taking _ness, less, ly_, or _ful_, after them, preserve the letter double; as, _harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful_.

_False Orthography_.--A chillness generally precedes a fever.--He is wed to dullness.

The silent stranger stood amazed to see Contempt of wealth and willful poverty.

Restlesness of mind impairs our peace.--The road to the blisful regions, is as open to the peasant as to the king.--The arrows of calumny fall harmlesly at the feet of virtue.

RULE VII. _Ness, less, ly_, or _ful_, added to words ending in silent _e_, does not cut it off; as, _paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful_; except in a few words; as, _duly, truly, awful_.

_False Orthography_.--Sedatness is becoming.

All these with ceasless praise his works behold. Stars rush: and final ruin fiercly drives Her ploughshare o'er creation! ------Nature made a pause, An aweful pause! prophetic of her end!

RULE VIII. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination, _ment_, the _e_ should not be cut off; as, _abatement, chastisement_.

_Ment_, like other terminations, changes _y_ into _i_ when the _y_ is preceded by a consonant; as, _accompany, accompaniment; merry, merriment_.

_False Orthography_.--A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates improvment.--Encouragment is greatest when we least need it.

To shun allurments is not hard, To minds resolv'd, forwarn'd, and well prepared.

RULE IX. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination, _able_ or _ible_, the _e_ should generally be cut off; as, _blame, blamable; cure, curable; sense, sensible_. But if _c_ or _g_ soft comes before _e_ in the original word, the _e_ is preserved in words compounded with _able_; as, _peace, peaceable; change, changeable_.

_False Orthography_.--Knowledge is desireable.--Misconduct is inexcuseable.--Our natural defects are not chargable upon us.--We are made to be servicable to others as well as to ourselves.

RULE X. When _ing_ or _ish_ is added to words ending in silent _e_, the _e_ is almost always omitted; as, _place, placing; lodge, lodging; slave, slavish; prude, prudish_.

_False Orthography_.--Labor and expense are lost upon a droneish spirit.--An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected with a servile and cringeing humor.

Conscience anticipateing time, Already rues th' unacted crime. One self-approveing hour, whole years outweighs Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas.

RULE XI. Compound words are generally spelled in the same manner as the simple words of which they are compounded; as, _glasshouse, skylight, thereby, hereafter_. Many words ending in double _l_, are exceptions to this rule; as, _already, welfare, wilful, fulfil_; and also the words, _wherever, christmas, lammas, &c_.

_False Orthography_.--The Jew's pasover was instituted in A.M. 2513.--They salute one another by touching their forheads.--That which is some times expedient, is not allways so.

Then, in the scale of reasoning life 'tis plain, There must be, somwhere, such a rank as man. Till hymen brought his lov-delighted hour, There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower. The head reclined, the loosened hair, The limbs relaxed, the mournful air:-- See, he looks up; a wofull smile Lightens his wo-worn cheek awhile.

You may now answer the following

QUESTIONS.

What is language?--How is language divided?--What is natural language?--What are the elements of natural language in man?--Wherein consists the language of brutes?--What is artificial language?--What is an idea?--What are words?--What is grammar?--What does Universal grammar explain?--Wherein does Particular grammar differ from universal?--What is the standard of grammatical accuracy?--What is Philosophical grammar?--What is Practical grammar?--What is a principle of grammar?--A definition?--A rule?--What is English grammar?--Into how many parts is grammar divided?--What does Orthography teach?

* * * * *

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX

LECTURE II

OF NOUNS AND VERBS.

ETYMOLOGY treats of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, and their derivation.

SYNTAX treats of the agreement and government of words, and of their proper arrangement in a sentence.

The word ETYMOLOGY signifies the _origin_ or _pedigree of words_.

_Syn_, a prefix from the Greek, signifies _together_. _Syn-tax_, means _placing together_; or, as applied in grammar, _sentence making_.

The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of words, and their judicious arrangement in a sentence, and thereby enable us to correct and avoid errors in speech, are chiefly based on principles unfolded and explained by Etymology. Etymological knowledge, then, is a prerequisite to the study of Syntax; but, in parsing, under the head of Etymology, you are required to apply the rules of Syntax. It becomes necessary, therefore, in a practical work of this sort, to treat these two parts of grammar in connexion.

Conducted on scientific principles, Etymology would comprehend the exposition of the origin and meaning of words, and, in short, their whole history, including their application to things in accordance with the laws of nature and of thought, and the caprice of those who apply them; but to follow up the current of language to its various sources, and analyze the springs from which it flows, would involve a process altogether too arduous and extensive for an elementary work. It would lead to the study of all those languages from which ours is immediately derived, and even compel us to trace many words through those languages to others more ancient, and so on, until the chain of research would become, if not endless, at least, too extensive to be traced out by one man. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the following, limited views of this part of grammar.

1. Etymology treats of the _classification_ of words.

2. Etymology explains the _accidents_ or _properties_ peculiar to each class or sort of words, and their present _modifications_. By modifications, I mean the changes produced on their _endings_, in consequence of their assuming different relations in respect to one another. These changes, such as fruit, fruit_s_, fruit'_s_; he, h_is_, h_im_; write, write_st_, write_th_, write_s_, wr_ote_, writ_ten_, writ_ing_, write_r_; a, a_n_; ample, ampl_y_, and the like, will be explained in their appropriate places.

3. Etymology treats of the _derivation_ of words; that is, it teaches you _how one word comes from_, or _grows out of_ another. For example, from the word speak, come the words speak_est_, speak_eth_, speak_s_, speak_ing_, sp_oke_, spo_ken_, speak_er_, speak_er's_, speak_ers_. These, you perceive, are all one and the same word, and all, except the last three, express the same kind of action. They differ from each other only in the termination. These changes in termination are produced on the word in order to make it correspond with the various _persons_ who speak, the _number_ of persons, or the _time_ of speaking; as, _I_ speak, _thou_ speak_est_, the _man_ speak_eth_, or speak_s_, the _men_ speak, _I_ sp_oke_; The speak_er_ speak_s_ another speak_er's_ spe_ech_.

The third part of Etymology, which is intimately connected with the second, will be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV, and in the Philosophical notes; but I shall not treat largely of that branch of derivation which consists in tracing words to foreign languages. This is the province of the lexicographer, rather than of the philologist. It is not the business of him who writes a practical, English grammar, to trace words to the Saxon, nor to the Celtic, the Greek, the Dutch, the Mexican, nor the Persian; nor is it his province to explain their meaning in Latin, French, or Hebrew, Italian, Mohegan, or Sanscrit; but it is his duty to explain their properties, their powers, their connexions, relations, dependancies, and, bearings, not at the period in which the Danes made an irruption into the island of Great Britain, nor in the year in which Lamech paid his addresses to Adah and Zillah, but _at the particular period in which he writes_. His words are already derived, formed, established, and furnished to his hand, and he is bound to take them and explain them as he finds them _in his day_, without any regard to their ancient construction and application.

CLASSIFICATION. In arranging the parts of speech, I conceive it to be the legitimate object of the practical grammarian, to consult _practical convenience_. The true principle of classification seems to be, not a reference to essential differences in the _primitive_ meaning of words, nor to their original combinations, but to the _manner in which they are at present employed_. In the early and rude state of society, mankind are quite limited in their knowledge, and having but few ideas to communicate, a small number of words answers their purpose in the transmission of thought. This leads them to express their ideas in short, detached sentences, requiring few or none of those _connectives_, or words of transition, which are afterwards introduced into language by refinement, and which contribute so largely to its perspicuity and elegance. The argument appears to be conclusive, then, that every language must necessarily have more parts of speech in its refined, than in its barbarous state.

The part of speech to which any word belongs, is ascertained, not by the _original_ signification of that word, but by its present _manner_ of meaning, or, rather, _the office which it performs in a sentence_.

The various ways in which a word is applied to the idea which it represents, are called its _manner of meaning_. Thus, The painter dips his _paint_ brush in _paint_, to _paint_ the carriage. Here, the word _paint_, is first employed to _describe_ the brush which the painter uses; in this situation it is, therefore, an _adjective_; secondly, to _name_ the mixture employed; for which reason it is a _noun_; and, lastly, to _express the action_ performed; it therefore, becomes a _verb_; and yet, the meaning of the word is the same in all these applications. This meaning, however, is applied in different ways; and thus the same word becomes different parts of speech. Richard took _water_ from the _water_ pot, to _water_ the plants.

ETYMOLOGY.

Etymology treats, first, of the _classification_ of words.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is derived chiefly from the Saxon, Danish, Celtic, and Gothic; but in the progressive stages of its refinement, it has been greatly enriched by accessions from the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages.

The number of words in our language, after deducting proper names, and words formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns, and adjectives, may be estimated at about _forty thousand_. There are ten sorts of words, called parts of speech, namely, the NOUN or SUBSTANTIVE, VERB, ARTICLE, ADJECTIVE, PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, PRONOUN, CONJUNCTION, and INTERJECTION.

Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English language are included in these ten classes: and what you have to do in acquiring a knowledge of English Grammar, is merely to become acquainted with these ten parts of speech, and the rules of Syntax that apply to them. The _Noun_ and _Verb_ are the most important and leading parts of speech; therefore they are first presented: all the rest (except the interjection) are either appendages or connectives of these two. As you proceed, you will find that it will require more time, and cost you more labor, to get a knowledge of the noun and verb, than it will to become familiar with all the minor parts of speech.

The principal use of words is, to _name_ things, _compare_ them with each other, and _express their actions_.

_Nouns_, which are the names of entities or things, _adjectives_ which denote the comparisons and relations of things by describing them, and expressing their qualities, and _verbs_, which express the actions and being of things, are the only classes of words necessarily recognised in a philosophical view of grammar. But in a treatise which consults, mainly, the _practical_ advantages of the learner, it is believed, that no classification will be found more convenient or accurate than the foregoing, which divides words into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, in this place, that nothing would be gained by adopting either a less or a greater number of the parts of speech, would be anticipating the subject. I shall, therefore, give my reasons for adopting this arrangement in preference to any other, as the different sorts of words are respectively presented to you, for then you will be better prepared to appreciate my arguments.

OF NOUNS.

A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, _man, Charleston, knowledge_.

Nouns are often improperly called _substantives_. A substantive is the name of a _substance_ only; but a noun is the name either of a _substance_ or a _quality_.

_Noun_, derived from the Latin word _nomen_, signifies _name_. The name of any thing [1] that exists, whether animate or inanimate, or which we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or think of, is a noun. _Animal, bird, creature, paper, pen, apple, fold, house, modesty, virtue, danger_, are all nouns. In order that you may easily distinguish this part of speech from others, I will give you a _sign_, which will be useful to you when you cannot tell it by the _sense_. Any word that will make sense with _the_ before it, is a noun. Try the following words by this sign, and see if they are nouns: tree, mountain, soul, mind, conscience, understanding. _The_ tree, _the_ mountain, _the_ soul, and so on. You perceive, that they will make sense with _the_ prefixed; therefore you know they are _nouns_. There are, however, exceptions to this rule, for some nouns will not make sense with _the_ prefixed. These you will be able to distinguish, if you exercise your mind, by their _making sense of themselves_; as, _goodness, sobriety, hope, immortality_.

[1] The word _thing_, from the Saxon verb _thingian_, to think, is almost unlimited in its meaning. It may be applied to every animal and creature in the universe. By the term creature, I mean that which has been created; as, a dog, water, dirt. This word is also frequently applied to actions; as, "To get drunk is a beastly _thing_." In this phrase, it signifies neither animal nor creature; but it denotes merely an action; therefore this action is the thing.

Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing, as well as its reality; as, _nothing, naught, vacancy, non-existence, invisibility_.

Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, according to their _manner_ of meaning; and nouns are sometimes used as adjectives, and adjectives, as nouns. This matter will be explained in the concluding part of this lecture, where you will be better prepared to comprehend it.

NOUNS are of two kinds, common and proper.

A _Common noun_ is the name of a sort or species of things; as, _man, tree, river_.

A _Proper noun_ is the name of an individual; as, _Charles, Ithaca, Ganges_.

A noun signifying many, is called a _collective noun_, or _noun of multitude_; as, the _people_, the _army_.

The distinction between a common and a proper noun, is very obvious. For example: _boy_ is a common noun, because it is a name applied to _all_ boys; but _Charles_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of an _individual_ boy. Although many boys may have the same name, yet you know it is not a common noun, for the name Charles is _not_ given to all boys. _Mississippi_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of an individual river; but _river_ is a common noun, because it is the name of a _species_ of things, and the name _river_ is common to _all_ rivers.

Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things, are always common; as, _tree_, the genus; _oak, ash, chestnut, poplar_, different species; and red _oak_, white _oak_, black _oak_, varieties. The word earth, when it signifies a kind or quantity of dirt, is a common noun; but when it denotes the planet we inhabit, it is a proper noun. The _words_ person, place, river, mountain, lake, &c. are _common nouns_, because they are the names of whole _species_, or classes of things containing many sorts; but the _names_ of persons, places, rivers, mountains, lakes, &c. are _proper nouns_, because they denote _individuals_; as, Augustus, Baltimore, Alps, Huron.

_Physician, lawyer, merchant_, and _shoemaker_, are common nouns, because these names are common to classes of men. _God_ and _Lord_, when applied to Jehovah or Jesus Christ, are proper; but when employed to denote heathen or false _gods_, or temporal _lords_, they are common. The Notes and remarks throughout the work, though of minor importance, demand your attentive and careful perusal.

NOTES.

1. When _proper_ nouns have an article annexed to them, they are used after the manner of _common_ nouns; as, "Bolivar is styled _the_ Washington of South America."

2. _Common_ nouns are sometimes used to signify _individuals_, when articles or pronouns are prefixed to them; as, "_The_ boy is studious; _That_ girl is discreet." In such instances, they are nearly equivalent to proper nouns.

3. _Common_ nouns are sometimes subdivided into the following classes: _Nouns of Multitude_; as, The people, the parliament: _Verbal or participial nouns_; as, The beginning, reading, writing; and _Abstract nouns_, or the names of qualities abstracted from their substances; as, knowledge, virtue, goodness. Lest the student be led to blend the idea of abstract nouns with that of adjectives, both of which denote qualities, a farther illustration appears to be necessary, in order to mark the distinction between these two parts of speech. An abstract noun denotes a quality considered _apart_ (that is, abstracted) _from_ the substance or being to which it belongs; but an adjective denotes a quality _joined_ (adjected) _to_ the substance or being to which it belongs. Thus, _whiteness_ and _white_ both denote the same quality; but we speak of whiteness as a distinct object of thought, while we use the word _white_ always in reference to the noun to which it belongs; as, _white_ paper, _white_ mouse.

4. Some authors have proceeded to still more minute divisions and sub-divisions of nouns; such, for example, as the following, which appear to be more complex than useful: _Natural nouns_, or names of things formed by nature; as, man, beast, water, air: 2. _Artificial nouns_, or names of things formed by art; as, book, vessel, house: 3. _Personal nouns_, or those which stand for human beings; as, man, woman, Edwin: 4. _Neuter nouns_, or those which denote things inanimate; as, book, field, mountain, Cincinnati. The following, however, is quite a rational division: _Material nouns_ are the names of things formed of matter; as, stone, book: _Immaterial nouns_ are the names of things having no substance; as, hope, immortality.

To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case.

GENDER.

GENDER is the distinction of sex. Nouns have three genders, the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter.

The _masculine gender_ denotes males; as, a _man_, a _boy_.

The _feminine gender_ denotes females; as, a _woman_, a _girl_.