Chapter 28

_Precision_, from _præcidere_, to cut off, signifies retrenching all superfluities, and pruning the expression in such a manner as to exhibit neither more nor less than an exact copy of the ideas intended to be conveyed.

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

A proper construction of sentences is of so great importance in every species of composition, that we cannot be too strict or minute in our attention to it.

Elegance of style requires us generally to _avoid_, many short or long sentences in succession; a monotonous correspondence of one member to another; and the commencing of a piece, section, or paragraph, with a long sentence.

The qualities most essential to a perfect sentence, are _Unity_, _Clearness_, _Strength_, and _Harmony_.

UNITY is an indispensable property of a correct sentence. A sentence implies an arrangement of words in which only _one_ proposition is expressed. It may, indeed, consist of parts; but these parts ought to be so closely bound together, as to make on the mind the impression, not of many objects, but of only one. In order to preserve this unity, the following rules may be useful.

1. _In the course of the sentence, the scene should be changed as little as possible._ In every sentence there is some leading or governing word, which, if possible, ought to be continued so from the beginning to the end of it. The following sentence is not constructed according to this rule: "After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness." In this sentence, though the objects are sufficiently connected, yet, by shifting so frequently the place and the person, the _vessel_, the _shore_, _we_, _they_, _I_ and _who_, they appear in so disunited a view, that the mind is led to wander for the sense. The sentence is restored to its proper unity by constructing it thus: "Having come to anchor, I was put on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness."

2. _Never crowd into one sentence things which have so little connexion, that they would bear to be divided into two or more sentences._ The violation of this rule produces so unfavorable an effect, that it is safer to err rather by too many short sentences, than by one that is overloaded and confused.

3. _Avoid all unnecessary parentheses_.

CLEARNESS. _Ambiguity_, which is opposed to clearness, may arise from a bad choice, or a bad arrangement of words.

A leading rule in the arrangement of sentences, is, that _those words or members most nearly related, should be placed in the sentence as near to each other as possible, so as thereby to make their mutual relation clearly appear._ This rule ought to be observed,

1. _In the position of adverbs._ "By greatness," says Mr. Addison, "I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view." The improper situation of the adverb _only_, in this sentence, renders it a limitation of the verb _mean_, whereas the author intended to have it qualify the phrase, _a single object;_ thus, "By greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object _only_, but the largeness of a whole view."

2. _In the position of phrases and members._ "Are these designs which any man who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation, ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow?" Corrected: "Are these designs which any man who is born a Briton, ought to be ashamed or afraid, _in any circumstances_, _in any situation_, to avow?"

3. _In the position of pronouns._ The reference of a pronoun to its noun, should always be _so clear that we cannot possibly mistake it:_ otherwise the noun ought to be repeated. "It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us against but the good providence of our Heavenly Father." _Which_, in this sentence, grammatically refers to _treasures;_ and this would convert the whole period into nonsense. The sentence should have been thus constructed, "It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourselves against the _accidents_ of life, against _which_ nothing can protect us but the good providence of our Heavenly Father."

STRENGTH. By the _strength_ of a sentence is meant such an arrangement of its several words and members, as exhibits the sense to the best advantage, and gives every word and member its due weight and force.

1. The first rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, to _take from it all redundant words and members._ Whatever can be easily supplied in the mind, should generally be omitted; thus, "Content with deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it," is better than to say, "_Being_ content with deserving a triumph." &c. "They returned back again to the same city from whence they came forth." If we expunge from this snort sentence _five_ which are were expletives, it will be much more neat and forcible thus, "They returned to the city whence they came." But we should be cautious of pruning so closely as to give a hardness and dryness to the style. Some leaves must be left to shelter and adorn the fruit.

2. _Particular attention to the use of copulatives, relatives, and all the particles employed for transition and connexion, is required_. In compositions of an elevated character, the _relative_ should generally be inserted. An injudicious repetition of _and_ enfeebles style; but when enumerating objects which we wish to have appear as distinct from each other as possible, it may be repeated with peculiar advantage; thus, "Such a man may fall a victim to power; but truth, _and_ reason, _and_ liberty, would fall with him."

3. _Dispose of the capital word or words in that part of the sentence in which they will make the most striking impression_.

4. _Cause the members of a sentence to go on rising in their importance one above another_. In a sentence of two members, the longer should generally be the concluding one.

5. _Avoid concluding a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word, unless it be emphatical_.

6. _Where two things are compared or contrasted with each other, a resemblance in the language and construction should be observed_.

* * * * *

FIGURES OF SPEECH.

Figures of Speech may be described as that language which is prompted either by the imagination, or by the passions. They generally imply some departure from simplicity of expression; and exhibit ideas in a manner more vivid and impressive, than could be done by plain language. Figures have been commonly divided into two great classes; Figures of _Words_, and Figures of _Thought_.

Figures of Words are called _Tropes_, and consist in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its original meaning; so that by altering the word, we destroy the figure.

When we say of a person, that he has a fine _taste_ in wines, the word taste is used in its common, literal sense; but when we say, he has a fine _taste_ for painting, poetry, or music, we use the word figuratively. "A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity," is simple language; but when it is said, "To the upright there ariseth _light_ in _darkness_," the same sentiment is expressed in a figurative style, _light_ is put in the place of _comfort_, and _darkness_ is used to suggest the idea of _adversity_.

The following are the most important figures:

1. A METAPHOR is founded on the resemblance which one object bears to another; or, it is a comparison in an abridged form.

When I say of some great minister, "That he upholds the state like a _pillar_ which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a comparison; but when I say of such a minister, "That he is the _pillar_ of the state," the word pillar becomes a metaphor. In the latter construction, the comparison between the minister and a pillar, is made in the mind; but it is expressed without any of the words that denote comparison.

Metaphors abound in all writings. In the scriptures they may be found in vast variety. Thus, our blessed Lord is called a vine, a lamb, a lion, &c.; and men, according to their different dispositions, are styled wolves, sheep, dogs, serpents, vipers, &c.

Washington Irving, in speaking of the degraded state of the American Aborigines who linger on the borders of the "white settlements," employs the following beautiful metaphor: "The proud _pillar_ of their independence has been shaken down, and the whole moral _fabric_ lies in ruins."

2. AN ALLEGORY may be regarded as a metaphor continued; or it is several metaphors so connected together in sense, as frequently to form a kind of parable or fable. It differs from a single metaphor, in the same manner that a cluster on the vine differs from a single grape.

The following is a fine example of an allegory, taken from the 60th psalm; wherein the people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine. "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it; and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the river."

3. A SIMILE or COMPARISON is when the resemblance between two objects, whether real or imaginary, is expressed in form.

Thus, we use a simile, when we say, "The actions of princes are like those great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but their springs have been seen by few." "As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people." "The music of Caryl was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the soul." "Our Indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in the shade, but which wither when exposed to the influence of the sun."

"The Assyrian came down, like the wolf on the fold, And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold; And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee."

4. A METONYMY is where the cause is put for the effect, or the effect for the cause; the container for the thing contained; or the sign for the thing signified.

When we say, "They read _Milton_," the cause is put for the effect, meaning "Milton's _works_." "Gray hairs should be respected;" here the effect is put for the cause; meaning by "gray hairs," _old age_, which produces gray hairs. In the phrase, "The kettle boils," the container is substituted for the thing contained. "He addressed the _chair_;" that is, the person in the chair.

5. A SYNECDOCHE OR COMPREHENSION. When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus; in general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise object meant, the figure is called a Synecdoche.

Thus, "A fleet of twenty _sail_, instead of, _ships_." "The _horse_ is a noble animal;" "The _dog_ is a faithful creature:" here an individual is put for the species. We sometimes use the "head" for the _person_, and the "waves" for the _sea_. In like manner, an attribute may be pat for a subject; as "Youth" for the _young_, the "deep" for the _sea_.

6. PERSONIFICATION or PROSOPOPOEIA is that figure by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects. When we say, "The ground _thirsts_ for rain," or, "the earth _smiles_ with plenty;" when we speak of "ambition's being _restless_," or, "a disease's being _deceitful_;" such expressions show the facility, with which the mind can accommodate the properties of living creatures to things that are inanimate.

The following are fine examples of this figure:

"Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old _Ocean smiles_;"

"The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them; and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose."

7. AN APOSTROPHE is an address to some person, either absent or dead, as if he were present and listening to us. The address is frequently made to a personified object; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory. O _death!_ where is thy sting? O _grave!_ where is thy victory?"

"Weep on the rock of roaring winds, O _maid_ of Inistore; bend thy fair head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, when it moves in a sun-beam at noon over the silence of Morveu."

8. ANTITHESIS. Comparison is founded on the resemblance, antithesis, on the contrast or opposition, of two objects.

_Example._ "If you wish to enrich a person, study not to _increase_ his _stores_, but to _diminish_ his _desires."_

9. HYPERBOLE or EXAGGERATION consists in magnifying an object beyond its natural bounds. "As swift as the wind; as white as the snow; as slow as a snail;" and the like, are extravagant hyperboles.

"I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted fir; his shield, the rising moon; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the bills."

10. VISION is produced, when, in relating something that is past, we use the present tense, and describe it as actually, passing before our eyes.

11. INTERROGATION. The literal use of an interrogation, is to ask a question; but when men are strongly moved, whatever they would affirm or deny with great earnestness, they naturally put in the form of a question.

Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak: "The Lord is not man, that he should lie, nor the son of man, that he should repeat. Hath he said it? and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it good?" "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice like him?"

12. EXCLAMATIONS are the effect of strong emotions, such a surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like.

"O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men!" "O that I had wings like a dove! for then would I fly away, and be at rest!"

13. IRONY is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts; not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our remarks. We can reprove one for his negligence, by saying, "You have taken great care, indeed."

The prophet Elijah adopted this figure, when he challenged the priests of Baal to prove the truth of their deity. "He mocked them, and said. Cry aloud for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey, or, peradventure, he sleepeth, and must be waked."

14. AMPLIFICATION or CLIMAX consists in heightening all the circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place in a strong light.

Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when he says, "It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds: it is the height of guilt to scourge him; little less than parricide to put him to death: what name, then, shall I give to the act of crucifying him?"

KEY.

_Corrections of the False Syntax arranged under the Rules and Notes_.

RULE 4. Frequent commission of sin _hardens_ men in it. Great pains _have_ been taken, &c.--_is_ seldom found. The sincere _are_, &c.--_is_ happy. What _avail_, &c.--Disappointments _sink_--the renewal of hope _gives_, &c.--_is_ without limit, _has_ been conferred upon us.--Thou _canst_ not heal--but thou _mayst_ do, &c.--_consists_ the happiness, &c.--Who _touchedst_, or _didst touch_ Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire.

_Note 1._ And _wilt thou_ never be to Heaven resigned?--And _who_ had great abilities, &c.

_Note 2._ Are peace and honor.--_was_ controversy.

RULE 7. _Them_ that you visited.--_him_ that was mentioned.--_he_ who preached repentance, &c.--_they_ who died.--_he_ who succeeded.

RULE 8. Time and tide _wait,_ &c.--_remove_ mountains.--_are_ both uncertain.--_dwell_ with, &c.--_affect_ the mind, &c.--What _signify_ the counsel and care, &c.--_are_ now perished.--Why _are_ whiteness and coldness, &c.--bind _them_ continually, &c.--render _their_ possessor, &c.--There _are_ error and discrepance--which _show_, &c.

RULE 9. _Is_ the same in idea.--_is_ in the porphyry.--_is_ remarkable, &c.--which _moves_ merely as _it is_ moved.--_affects_ us, &c.--Man's happiness or misery _is_, in a great measure, &c.--for _it_ may be, &c.--_was_ blameworthy.

RULE 10. The nation _is_ powerful.--The fleet _was_ seen, &c.--The church _has_, &c.--_is_, or ought to be, the _object_, &c.--_it_ is feeble.

RULE 11. My people _do_, &c.--The multitude eagerly _pursue_ pleasure as _their_, &c.--_were_ divided in _their_ sentiments, and _they have_ referred, &c.--The people _rejoice_--give _them_ sorrow.

RULE 12. _Homer's_ works are, &c.--_Asa's_ heart. _James Hart's_ book.

_Note 1._ It was the _men_, _women_, and children's lot, &c. or, _It was the lot of_ the men, women, and children.--_Peter_, _John_, and Andrew's, &c.

_Note 2._ This is _Campbell_ the poet's production; or, _The production of Campbell, &c._--The silk was purchased at Brown's the _mercer_ and _haberdasher._

_Note_ 4. The _pupil's_ composing, &c.--_rule's_ being observed.--of the _president's_ neglecting to lay it before the council.

RULE 13. Of _his_ audience.--put _it_ on Jacob.--sprinkle _them_--and they shall, &c.--of _his_ reputation.

_Note_. You were blamed; you _were_ worthy.--where _were_ you?--how fat _were_ you?

RULE 14. Who _hast_ been, &c.--_who is_ the sixth _that has_ lost _his life_ by this means.

Who all my sense _confinedst;_ or, _didst confine_.

_Note_. And _who broughtest_ him forth out of Ur.

RULE 15, _Who_ shall be sent, &c.--This is the man _who_, &c.

RULE 16. They _to whom_ much is given, &c.--_with whom_ you associate &c.--_whom_ I greatly respect, &c.--_whom_ we ought to love, and _to whom_, &c--They _whom_ conscience, &c.--With _whom_ did you walk?--_Whom_ did you see?--To _whom_ did you give the book?

RULE 17. Who gave John those books? _We_.--_him_ who lives in Pearl street--My brother and _he_.--_She_ and _I_.

RULE 18: _Note_ 2. Thirty _tuns_.--twenty _feet_--one hundred _fathoms_.

_Note_ 6. He bought a pair of _new_ shoes--piece of _elegant_ furniture.--pair of _fine_ horses--tract of _poor_ land.

_Note_ 7. Are still more _difficult to be comprehended_.--most _doubtful_, or _precarious_ way, &c.--_This model comes nearer perfection than any I_, &c.

RULE 19: _Note. That_ sort.--_these_ two hours.--_This_ kind, &c.--He saw one _person_, or more _than one_, enter the garden.

_Note_ 2. Better than _himself_.--_is_ so small.--_his_ station may be, _is_ bound by the laws.

_Note_ 3. On _each_ side, &c.--took _each_ his censer.

RULE 20. _Whom_ did they, &c.--They _whom_ opulence,--_whom_ luxury, &c.--_Him_ and _them_ we know, &c.--_Her_ that is negligent, &c.--my brother and _me_ &c.--_Whom_ did they send, &c.--_Them whom_ he, &c.

RULE 21. It is _I_.--If I were _he_.--it is _he_, indeed.--_Whom_ do you, &c.--_Who_ do men say, &c.--and _who_ say ye, &c.--_whom_ do you imagine it to have been?--it was _I_; but you knew that it was _he_.

RULE 25. Bid him _come_--durst not _do_ it.--Hear him _read,_ &c.--makes us _approve_ and _reject_, &c.--better _to_ live--than _to_ outlive, &c.--_to_ wrestle.

RULE 26: _Note_. The taking _of_ pains: or, without taking pains, &c.--The changing _of_ times,--the removing and setting up _of_ kings.

RULE 28: _Note_ 3. He _did_ me--I had _written_--he _came_ home.--_befallen_ my cousin--he would have _gone_.--already _risen_.--is _begun_.--is _spoken_.--would have _written_--had they _written_, &c.

RULE 29: _Note_ 1. It cannot, _therefore_, be, &c.--he was _not often_ pleasing.--should _never_ be separated.--We may live _happily_, &c.

RULE 30: _Note_. I don't know _any thing_; or, I _know_ nothing, &c.--I did not see _anybody_; or, I saw _nobody_, &c.--Nothing ever _affects_ her.--_and_ take no shape _or_ semblance, &c.--There _can_ be nothing, &c.--_Neither_ precept _nor_ discipline is so forcible as example.

RULE 31. For _himself_.--among _themselves_.--_with whom_ he is, &c.--_With whom_ did, &c.--_From whom_ did you receive instruction?

RULE 33. My brother and _he_, &c.--You and _I_, &c. _He_ and I--John and _he_, &c.--Between you and _me_, &c.

RULE 34. And _entreat_ me, &c.--and _acting_ differently, &c.

_Note_ 1. But _he_ may return--but _he_ will write no more.

_Note_ 2. Unless it _rain_.--If he _acquire_ riches, &c.

RULE 35. Than _I_--as well as _he_, than _they_.--but _he_.--but _he_ and _I_.--but _them_ who had gone astray.

_Promiscuous Examples_.--_Him_ who is from eternity, &c.--_depends_ all the happiness,--which _exists_, &c.--the enemies _whom_, &c.--Is it _I_ or _he whom_ you requested?--Though great _have_ been,--sincerely _acknowledge_.--There _was_, in the metropolis.--exercising our memories.--_was_ consumed.--Affluence _may_ give--but _it_ will not.--of this world often choke.--_Them_ that honor,--and _they_ that despise.--I intended _to call_ last week.--the fields look _fresh_ and _gay_.--very _neatly, finely woven_ paper.--where I _saw_ Gen. Andrew Jackson, _him_ who.--Take the _first two_,--_last three_.--thirty _feet_ high.--_a_ union,--_a_ hypothesis.--I have _seen_ him _to whom_ you wrote, he would have _come_ back, or _returned_.--_understands_ the nature,--he _rejects_.--If thou _study_,--thou _wilt_ become.--is not _properly_ attended to.--He _knew_.--therefore, to _have_ done it,--_than_ the title.--very _independently_.--duty to _do_.--my _friend's_ entering.--is the _best_ specimen, or it _comes nearer_ perfection _than any_, &c.--blow _them_, will go, &c.--_Each of those two authors has his_ merit.--_Reason's_ whole,--_lie_ in.--_strikes_ the mind,--than if _the parts had been adjusted_,--with _perfect_ symmetry.

Satire _does_ not carry in _it_.--_composes_ the triangle.--_persons'_ opportunities were _ever_.--It _has been_ reported.--should _never_ be.--situation _in which_.--_is_ thoroughly versed in _his_.--_are_ the soul,--_follows_ little.--An army _presents_.--_are_ the _duties_ of a christian.--happier than _he_.--_always_ have _inclined_, and _which always_ will incline him to offend.--which _require_ great.--_Them_ that honor me, will I.--_has_ opinions peculiar to _itself_.--that _it may_ be said _he attained_ monarchical.--_hast_ permitted,--_wilt_ deliver.--_was_ formerly propagated.--the measure _is_,--unworthy your.--_were_ faithless.--After I _had_ visited.--nor shall _I_, consent.--Yesterday I intended to _walk_ out, but _was_.--_make_ or _are_ thirteen,--_leave_ three.--If he _go_,--make _the eighth time_ that he _will have_ visited.--_is_ nobler.--was possessed, or _that ever_ can be.--one great _edifice_,--smaller _ones_.--honesty _is_.--it to _be_.--_will_ follow me,--I _shall_ dwell.--_is_ gone astray.--he could, not _have done_.--_feeling_ a propensity.

PUNCTUATION.

COMMA.

_Corrections of the Exercises in Punctuation_.

RULE 1. Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the human heart. The friend of order has made half his way to virtue. All finery is a sign of littleness.

RULE 2. The indulgence of a harsh disposition, is the introduction to future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society, serves to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good.

RULE 3. Charity, like the sun, brightens all its objects. Gentleness is, in truth, the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You, too, have your failings. Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excel pride and ignorance, under costly attire. The best men often experience disappointments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed behavior can always hide the real character.