Chapter 23

2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb, expresses _quality_, it must be an adjective, but when it expresses _manner_, an adverb should be used; as, "She looks _cold;_ She looks _coldly_ on him; He feels _warm;_ He feels _warmly_ the insult offered to him." If the verb _to be_ can be substituted for the one employed, an adjective should follow, and not an adverb; as, "She looks _[is] cold_; The hay smells _[is] sweet_; The fields look _[are] green_; The apples taste _[are] sour_; The wind blows _[is] fresh_."

3. It is not strictly proper to apply the adverbs _here, there_, and _where_, to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs _hither, thither, whither_; thus, "He came _here [hither]_ hastily;" "They rode _there [thither]_ in two hours;" "_Where [whither]_ will he go?" But in familiar style, these constructions are so far sanctioned as sometimes to be admissible.

4. The use of _where_, instead of _in which_, in constructions like the following, is hardly admissible: "The immortal sages of '76, formed a charter, _where [in which]_ their rights are boldly asserted."

5. As the adverbs _hence, thence_, and _whence_, literally supply the place of a noun and preposition, there appears to be a solecism in employing a preposition in conjunction with them: "_From whence_ it follows;" "He came _from thence_ since morning." Better, "_whence_ it follows;" "He came _thence_." The following phrases are also exceptionable: "The _then_ ministry;" "The _above_ argument;" "Ask me _never_ so much dowry;" "Charm he _never_ so wisely." Better, "The ministry _of that time_ or _period_;" "The _preceding_ argument;" "_Ever_ so much dowry;" "_Ever_ so wisely."

FALSE SYNTAX.

_Note_ 1. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to remonstrate.

He was pleasing not often, because he was vain.

These things should be never separated.

We may happily live, though our possessions are small.

RULE XXX.

Two negatives destroy one another, and are generally equivalent to an affirmative; as, "Such things are _not un_common;" i.e. they are common.

NOTE. When one of the two negatives employed is joined to another word, it forms a pleasing and delicate variety of expression; as, "His language, though inelegant, is _not un_grammatical;" that is, it is grammatical.

But, as two negatives, by destroying each other, are equivalent to an affirmative, they should not be used when we wish to convey a _negative_ meaning. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate: "I can_not_ by _no_ means allow him what his argument must prove." It should be, "I cannot by _any_ means," &c., or, "I _can_ by _no_ means."

FALSE SYNTAX.

_Note, 2d part_. I don't know nothing about it.

I did not see nobody there. Nothing never affects her.

Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise.

There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity.

Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example.

RULE XXXI.

Prepositions govern the objective case; as, "He went _from_ Utica _to_ Rome, and then passed _through_ Redfield."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Each is accountable for hisself.

They settled it among theirselves.

It is not I who he is displeased with.

Who did you go with?

Who did you receive instruction from?

RULE XXXII.

_Home_, and nouns signifying _distance_, time _when_, _how long_, &c. are generally governed by a preposition _understood_; as, "The horse ran a mile;" "He came _home_ last June;" "My friend lived four _years_ at college;" that is, ran _through the space of_ a mile; or, ran _over a space called_ a mile; _to_ his home _in_ last June; _during_ four years, &c.

NOTE 1. The prepositions _to_ and _for_ are often understood, chiefly before the pronouns; as, "Give [to] _me_ a book; Get [for] _him_ some paper."

2. _To_ or _unto_, is, by some, supposed to be understood after _like_ and _unlike_; as, "He is _like_ [unto] his brother; She is _unlike_ [to] him." Others consider this mode of expression an idiom of the language, and maintain that _like_ governs the objective following it.

3. Nouns signifying extension, duration, quantity, quality, or value, are used without a governing word; as, "The Ohio is one thousand _miles_ long; She is ten _years_ old; My hat is worth ten _dollars_." These are sometimes considered anomalies. See page 163.

RULE XXXIII.

Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case; as, "The master taught _her_ and _me_ to write;" "_He_ and _she_ are associates."

FALSE SYNTAX.

My brother and him are grammarians.

You and me enjoy great privileges.

Him and I went to the city in company; but John and him returned without me.

Between you and I there is a great disparity of years.

RULE XXXIV.

Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like moods and tenses; as, "If thou sincerely _desire, and_ earnestly _pursue_ virtue, she _will_ assuredly _be found_ by thee, _and prove_ a rich reward."

NOTE 1. When different moods and tenses are connected by conjunctions, the nominative must be repeated; as, "He _may return_, but _he will_ not _tarry_."

2. Conjunctions implying contingency or doubt, require the subjunctive mood after them; as, "_If_ he _study_, he will improve." See pages 135, 145, and 155.

3. The conjunctions _if_, _though_, _unless_, _except_, _whether_, and _lest_, generally require the subjunctive mood after them.

4. Conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature, implying no doubt, require the indicative mood; as, "_As_ virtue _advances, so_ vice _recedes_."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him?

Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base mind.

_Note_ 1. He has gone home, but may return.

The attorney executed the deed, but will write no more.

_Note_ 2. I shall walk to-day, unless it rains.

If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind.

RULE XXXV.

A noun or pronoun following the conjunction _than_, _as_, or _but_, is nominative to a verb, or governed by a verb or preposition, expressed or understood; as, "Thou art wiser _than_ I [_am_."] "I saw nobody _but_ [_I saw_] him."

NOTE 1. The conjunction _as_, when it is connected with _such_, _many_, or _same_, is sometimes, though erroneously, called a _relative pronoun_; as, "Let _such_ as presume to advise others," &c.; that is, Let _them who_, &c. See page 116.

2. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted, which must be supplied in the mind in order to parse grammatically; as "Wo is me;" that is, _to_ me; "To sleep all night;" i.e. _through_ all _the_ night; "He has gone a journey;" i.e. _on_ a journey; "They walked a league;" i.e. _over a space called_ a league.

3. When the omission of words would obscure the sense, or weaken its force, they must be expressed.

4. In the use of prepositions, and words that relate to each other, we should pay particular regard to the meaning of the words or sentences which they connect: all the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other, and a regular and clear construction throughout should be carefully preserved.

FALSE SYNTAX.

They are much greater gainers than me.

They know how to write as well as him; but he is a better grammarian than them.

They were all well but him.

None were rewarded but him and me.

Jesus sought none but they who had gone astray.

REMARKS ON THE TENSES.

1. In the use of verbs, and other words and phrases which, _in point of time_, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be observed.

Instead of saying, "The Lord _hath given_, and the Lord _hath taken_ away;" we should say, "The Lord _gave_, and the Lord _hath taken_ away." Instead of, "I _remember_ the family more than twenty years;" it should be, "I _have remembered_ the family more than twenty years."

2. The best rule that can be given for the management of the tenses, and of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to each other, is this very general one; _Observe what the sense necessarily requires_.

To say, "I _have_ visited Washington last summer; I _have seen_ the work more than a month ago," is not good _sense_. The constructions should be, "I _visited_ Washington, &c.; I _saw_ the work, &c." "This mode of expression _has been_ formerly much admired:"--"_was_ formerly much admired." "If I _had have_ been there;" "If I _had have_ seen him;" "_Had_ you _have_ known him," are solecisms too gross to need correction. We can say, I _have_ been, I _had_ been; but what sort of a tense is, _had have been_? To place _had_ before the _defective_ verb ought, is an error equally gross and illiterate:--"_had_ ought, _hadn't_ ought." This is as low a vulgarism as the use of _theirn_, _hern_, and _hizzen_, _tother_, _furder_, _baynt_, _this ere_, I _seed_ it, I _tell'd_ him.

3. When we refer to a past action or event, and no part of that time in which it took place; remains, the _imperfect_ tense should be used; but if there is still remaining some portion of the time in which we declare that the thing has been done, the _perfect_ tense should be employed.

Thus, we say, "Philosophers _made_ great discoveries in the last century;" "He _was_ much afflicted last year;" but when we refer to the present century, year, week, day, &c. we ought to use the _perfect_ tense; as, "Philosophers _have made_ great discoveries in the present century;" "He _has been_ much afflicted this year;" "I _have read_ the president's message this week;" "We _have heard_ important news this morning;" because these events occurred in this century, this year, this week, and to-day, and still there remains a part of this century, year, week, and day, of which I speak.

In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is connected with the present time, by the actual existence either of the author of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries ago; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, the perfect tense ought not to be employed. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, "They _have_, in all ages, _claimed_ great powers;" because the general order of the priesthood still exists; but we cannot properly say, "The Druid priests _have claimed_ great powers;" because that order is now extinct. We ought, therefore, to say, "The Druid priests _claimed_ great powers."

The following examples may serve still farther to illustrate the proper use and application of the tenses. "My brother has recently been to Philadelphia." It should be, "_was_ recently at Philadelphia;" because the adverb _recently_ refers to a time completely past, without any allusion to the present time. "Charles is grown considerably since I have seen him the last time." Corrected, "Charles _has_ grown, since I _saw_ him," &c. "Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned for its being so long postponed." Corrected, "for its _having been_ so long postponed." "They were arrived an hour before we reached the city:"--"They _had_ arrived."

"The workmen will complete the building at the time I take possession of it." It should be, "will _have completed_ the building," &c. "This curious piece of workmanship was preserved, and shown to strangers for more than fifty years past:"--"_has been_ preserved, and _been_ shown to strangers," &c. "I had rather write than beg:"--"I _would_ rather write than beg."

"On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty whereof Paul was accused of the Jews, he loosed him from his bands." It ought to be, "because he _would know_; or, _being willing to know,_" &c. "The blind man said, 'Lord, that I might receive my sight;'" "If by any means I might attain unto the resurrection of the dead." In both these examples, _may_ would be preferable to _might_. "I feared that I should have lost the parcel, before I arrived:"--"that I should _lose_." "It would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." It ought to be, "if I could _have performed_ it;" or, "It _would afford_ me no satisfaction, if I _could perform_ it." "This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be published:"--"that _has been_, or _will be published_."

4. In order to employ the two tenses of the infinitive mood with propriety, particular attention should be paid to the meaning of what we express.

Verbs expressive of _hope_, _desire_, _intention_, or _command_, ought to be followed by the PRESENT tense of the _Infinitive mood_.

"Last week I intended to _have written_," is improper. The intention of writing was then _present_ with me; and, therefore, the construction should be, "I intended _to write_." The following examples are also inaccurate; "I found him better than I expected _to have found_ him;" "My purpose was, after spending ten months more in commerce, _to have withdrawn_ my wealth to another country." They should be, "expected _to find_ him;" "_to withdraw_ my wealth."

"This is a book which proves itself to be written by the person whose name it bears." It ought to be "which proves itself _to have been written_," &c. "To see him would have afforded me pleasure all my life." Corrected, "_To have seen_ him;" or, "_To see_ him _would afford_ me pleasure," &c. "The arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all who heard them:"--"were sufficient _to satisfy_." "History painters would have found it difficult to have invented such a species of beings:"--"_to invent_ such a species."

5. General and immutable truths ought to be expressed in the _present_ tense.

Instead of saying, "He did not know that eight and twenty _were_ equal to twenty and eight;" "The preacher said very audibly, that whatever _was_ useful, _was_ good;" "My opponent would not believe, that virtue _was_ always advantageous.;" The constructions should be, "_are_ equal to twenty;" "whatever _is_ useful, _is_ good;" "virtue _is_ always advantageous."

EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED.

We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to eternity.

On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which exist among men.

The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own hearts.

Is it me or him who you requested to go?

Though great has been his disobedience and his folly, yet if he sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven.

There were, in the metropolis, much to amuse them.

By exercising of our memories, they are improved.

The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, were wholly consumed.

Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but will not recommend us to the wise and good.

The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue.

They that honor me, I will honor; and them that despise me, shall be lightly esteemed.

I intended to have called last week, but could not.

The fields look freshly and gayly since the rain.

The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove paper.

I have recently been in Washington, where I have seen Gen. Andrew Jackson, he who is now president.

Take the two first, and, if you please, the three last.

The Chinese wall is thirty foot high.

It is an union supported by an hypothesis, merely.

I have saw him who you wrote to; and he would have came back with me, if he could.

Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, understand the nature of the religion which they reject.

If thou studiest diligently, thou will become learned.

Education is not attended to properly in Spain.

He know'd it was his duty; and he ought, therefore, to do it.

He has little more of the great man besides the title.

Richard acted very independent on the occasion.

We have done no more than it was our duty to have done.

The time of my friend entering on business, soon arrived.

His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever saw.

Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow, they will go out of themselves.

Those two authors have each of them their merit.

Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence.

A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature with wildness and confusion, strike the mind with more grandeur, than if they were adjusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry.

A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder.

The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle.

If some persons opportunities were never so favorable, they would be too indolent to improve.

It is reported that the governor will come here to-morrow.

Beauty and innocence should be never separated.

Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where you will have much to fear and little to hope.

Not one in fifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly versed in their knowledge of the Scriptures.

Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where these are wanting, disgust or hatred often follow little differences.

An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind.

To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek revenge, is the duty of a Christian.

The polite, accomplished libertine, is but miserable amidst all his pleasures: the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than him.

There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever will, incline him to offend.

This is one of the duties which requires great circumspection.

They that honor me, them will I honor.

Every church and sect have opinions peculiar to themselves.

Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the Athenians, that he might be said to attain a monarchical power in Athens.

Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, shall deliver us from it in due time.

That writer has given us an account of the manner in which Christianity has formerly been propagated among the heathens.

Though the measure be mysterious, it is not unworthy of your attention.

In his conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithless professions. After I visited Europe, I returned to America.

I have not, nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust.

I had intended yesterday to have walked out, but I have been again disappointed.

Five and eight makes thirteen; five from eight leaves three.

If he goes to Saratoga next week, it will make eight times that he has visited that renowned watering place.

I could not convince him, that a forgiving disposition was nobler than a revengeful one. I consider the first, one of the brightest virtues that ever was or can be possessed by man.

The college consists of one great, and several smaller edifices.

He would not believe, that honesty was the best policy.

The edifice was erected sooner than I expected it to have been.

Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever.

If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, &c.?

He might have completed his task sooner, but he could not do it better.

The most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men, when they have looked round on the earth, and on the heavens, could not avoid ascribing their origin to some invisible, designing cause, and felt a propensity to adore their Creator.

* * * * *

CRITICAL NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS.

OBSERVATION 1. The following absurd phrases so common in the sacred desk and elsewhere, should be carefully avoided by all who regard common sense:--"Sing the _two first_ and _three last_ verses." Just as if there could be more than _one_ first and _one_ last. There may be a _first two_, a _second two_, &c.; a _first three_, a _second three_, a _last three_. "Within the _two last_ centuries;" "The second syllable of the _three first_ words;" "The _three first_ of these orthoepists have no rule by which their pronunciation is regulated:"--"the _last two_ centuries;" "the _first three_ words;" "the _first three_ of these orthoepists."

2. Adjectives should not be used to express the manner of action. "The higher the river, the _swifter_ it flows;" "James learns _easier_ than Juliet; he sees _deeper_ into the millstone than she:"--"the _more swiftly_ it flows;" "learns _more easily_; _farther_ into the millstone." "He conducted the _boldest_ of any:"--"the _most boldly_."

3. _More_ requires _than_ after it. The following sentences are therefore improper: "He was more beloved, but not so much admired, _as_ Cinthio;" "Richard is more active, but not so studious, _as_ his companion." The legitimate mode of supplying the ellipses in these constructions, will show their gross impropriety: thus, "He was more beloved _as_ Cinthio;" "Richard is more active _as_ his companion," &c.

4. Adverbs, as illustrated on page 85, are generally _substitutes_ for two or more words belonging to other parts of speech. "Will you accompany me to Europe next summer?" _"Yes."_ "Do you believe that the voyage will restore your health?" _"No."_ In these examples, the adverbs _yes_ and _no_, are substitutes for whole sentences, and, therefore, do not qualify any words understood. _Yes_, in this instance, literally means, _"I will accompany you to Europe next summer;"_ and _no_, _"I do not believe that the voyage will restore my health."_ Many other adverbs are often employed in a similar manner.

_"Firstly,"_ is often improperly used instead of the adverb _first;_ "a _good deal_," instead of, _much_, or, a _great deal_.

5. A nice distinction should be observed in the use of _such_ and _so_. The former may be employed in expressing _quality_; the latter, in expressing a _degree_ of the quality; as, "_Such_ a temper is seldom found;" "_So_ bad a temper is seldom found." In the following examples, _so_ should be used instead of _such:_ "He is _such_ an extravagant young man, that I cannot associate with him;" "I never before saw _such_ large trees."

The affected use of cardinal, instead of ordinal numbers, ought not to be imitated. "On page _forty-five;"_ "Look at page _nineteen_;"--_forty-fifth, nineteenth_.

6. In the choice and application of prepositions, particular regard should be paid to their meaning as established by the idiom of our language and the best usage. "In my proceedings, I have been actuated from the conviction, that I was supporting a righteous cause;" "He should have profited from those golden precepts;" "It is connected to John with the conjunction _and_;" "Aware that there is, in the minds of many, a strong predilection in favor of established usages;" "He was made much on at Argos;" "They are resolved of going;" "The rain has been falling of a long time;" "It is a work deserving of encouragement." These examples may be corrected thus, "actuated _by_ the conviction;" "_by_ those golden precepts;" "_by_ the conjunction and;" "predilection _for_;" "much _of_ at Argos;" "_on_ going;" "falling a long time;" "deserving encouragement."

7. The preposition _to_ is used before nouns of place, where they follow verbs or participles of motion; as, "I went _to_ Washington." But _at_ is employed after the verb _to be_; as, "I have been _at_ Washington;" "He has been _to_ New York, _to_ home," &c. are improper. The preposition _in_ is set before countries, cities, and large towns; "He lives _in_ France, _in_ London, _in_ Philadelphia, _in_ Rochester." But before single houses, and cities and villages which are in distant countries, _at_ is commonly used; as, "He lives _at_ Park-place;" "She resides _at_ Vincennes." People in the northern states may say, "They live _in_ New Orleans, or, _at_ New Orleans."