Chapter 22

The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the shepherd's care.

That nation was once powerful; but now they are feeble.

RULE XI.

A noun of multitude, conveying _plurality_ of idea, must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the _plural_; as, "The _council were_ divided in _their_ sentiments."

FALSE SYNTAX.

My people doth not consider.

The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good.

The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has referred the business to the general meeting.

The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow.

RULE XII.

A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun it possesses; as, "_Man's_ happiness;" "_Its_ value is great."

NOTE 1. When the possessor is described by a circumlocution, the possessive sign should generally be applied to the last term only; as, "The _duke of Bridgewater's_ canal; The _bishop of Landaff's_ excellent book; The _captain of the guard's_ house." This usage, however, ought generally to be avoided. The words do not literally convey the ideas intended. What nonsense to say, "This is _the governor of Ohio's_ house!"

2. When nouns in the possessive case are in apposition, and follow each other in quick succession, the possessive sign is generally annexed to the last only; as, "For _David_ my _servant's_ sake; _John_ the _Baptist's_ head; The canal was built in consequence of _De Witt Clinton_ the _governor's_ advice."

But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed, the sign should be applied to the first possessive only, and understood to the rest; as, "I reside at Lord _Stormont's_, my old _patron_ and _benefactor_."

3. _Its_, the possessive case of _it_, is often improperly used for _'tis_, or, _it is_; as, "_Its_ my book: _Its_ his," &c.; instead of, _"It is_ my book; or, _'Tis_ my book; _It is_ his; or, _'Tis_ his."

4. Participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the possessive case, as, "In case of his _majesty's dying_ without issue, &c.; Upon _God's having ended_ all his works, &c.; I remember _its being reckoned_ a great exploit; At _my coming_ in he said," &c. But in such instances, the participle with its adjuncts may be considered a substantive phrase, according to Note 2, Rule 28.

5. Phrases like these, "A work of _Washington Irving's_; A brother of _Joseph's_; A friend of _mine_; A neighbor of _yours_," do not, as some have supposed, each contain a double possessive, or two possessive cases, but they may be thus construed; "A work of (_out of_, or, _among the number of) Washington Irving's works_; that is, One of the works of _Washington Irving_; One of the brothers _of Joseph_; One friend _of my friends_; One neighbor of _your neighbors_."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Homers works are much admired.

Nevertheless, Asa his heart was not perfect with the Lord.

James Hart, his book, bought August the 19, 1829.

_Note_ 1. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to suffer great calamities.

This is Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation.

_Note_ 2. This is Campbell's the poet's production.

The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haberdasher's.

_Note_ 4. Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently.

Much depends on this rule being observed.

The measure failed in consequence of the president neglecting to lay it before the council.

RULE XIII.

Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in _gender_ and _number_; as, "_John_ writes, and _he_ will soon write well."

NOTE. You, though frequently employed to represent a singular noun, is always _plural in form_; therefore the verb connected with it should be plural; as, "My friend, you _were_ mistaken." See pages and

FALSE SYNTAX

Every man will be rewarded according to their works.

Incorrect, because the pronoun _their_ does not agree in gender or number with the noun "man," for which it stands; consequently Rule 13, is violated. _Their_ should be _his_; and then the pronoun would be of the masculine gender, singular number, agreeing with _man_, according to Rule 13. (Repeat the Rule.)

An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ear of their audience.

Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob.

Take handfuls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven, in the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust.

No one should incur censure for being tender of their reputation.

_Note_. Horace, you was blamed; and I think you was worthy of censure.

Witness, where was you standing during the transaction? How far was you from the defendant?

RULE XIV.

Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, in _gender_, _person_, and _number_; as, "Thou _who lovest_ wisdom;" "I _who speak_ from experience."

NOTE. When a relative pronoun is preceded by two antecedents of different persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person with either, but not without regard to the sense; as, "I am the man _who command_ you;" or, "I am the man _who commands_ you." The meaning of the first of these examples will more obviously appear, if we render it thus: "I who command you, am the _man_."

When the agreement of the relative has been fixed with either of the preceding antecedents, it must be preserved throughout the sentence; as, "I am the _Lord, that maketh_ all things; _that stretcheth_ forth the heavens alone; _that spreadeth_ abroad the earth by myself," &c.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Thou who has been a witness of the fact, canst state it.

The wheel killed another man, which make the sixth which have lost their lives by this means.

Thou great First Cause, least understood!

Who all my sense confined.

_Note, 2d part_. Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abraham, and brought him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees.

RULE XV.

The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb; as, "The master _who_ taught us, was eminent."

FALSE SYNTAX.

If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to admonish him.

This is the man whom, he informed me, was my benefactor.

RULE XVI.

When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the following verb, or by some other word in its own member of the sentence; as, "He _whom_ I _serve_, is eternal."

NOTE 1. _Who, which, what_, the relative _that_, and their compounds, _whomever, whomsoever_, &c., though in the objective case, are always placed before the verb; as, "He _whom_ ye _seek_, has gone hence."

2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates, either expressed or implied; as, "_Who_ steals my purse, steals trash;" that is, _he_ who.

3. The pronouns _whichsoever, whatsoever_, and the like, are sometimes elegantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding nouns; as, "On _which_ side _soever_ the _king_ cast his eyes," &c.

4. The pronoun _what_ is sometimes improperly used instead of the conjunction _that;_ as, "He would not believe but _what_ I was in fault." It should be "but _that_," &c.

FALSE SYNTAX.

That is the friend who I sincerely esteem.

Not proper, because _who_, which is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb "esteem," is in the nominative case. It ought to be _whom_, in the objective; and then it would be governed by esteem, according to Rule 16. (Repeat the Rule:)--and, also, according to Rule 20. "That is the friend _whom_ I sincerely esteem."

They who much is given to, will have much to answer for.

From the character of those who you associate with, your own will be estimated.

He is a man who I greatly respect.

Our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to love, and who we ought to be grateful to.

They who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of fortune.

Who did you walk with?

Who did you see there?

Who did you give the book to?

RULE XVII.

When a relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, it refers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question for its _subsequent_, which subsequent must agree in _case_ with the interrogative; as, "_Whose_ book is that? _Joseph's;" "Who_ gave you this? _John_."

NOTE. Whether the interrogative _really refers_ to a subsequent or not, is doubtful; but it is certain that the subsequent should agree in case with the interrogative.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Who gave John those books? Us. Of whom did you buy them? Of a bookseller, he who lives in Pearl street.

Who walked with you? My brother and him.

Who will accompany me to the country? Her and me.

RULE XVIII.

Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns, expressed or understood; as, "He is a _good_, as well as a _wise_ man."

NOTE 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns; as, "I am _miserable; He_ is _industrious_."

2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in number with their adjectives, when of the _cardinal_ kind; as, "Ten _feet_; Eighty _fathoms_." But some anomalous and figurative expressions form an exception to this rule; as, "A fleet of _forty sail;" "Two hundred head of cattle_."

3. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or to a part of a sentence; as, "_To see_ is _pleasant_; To be blind is _unfortunate_; To die for our country is _glorious_."

4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other adjectives, or the action of verbs, and to express the quality of things in connexion with the action by which that quality is produced; as, "_Red hot_ iron; _Pale blue_ lining; _Deep sea-green_ sash; The apples boil _soft_; Open your hand _wide_; The clay burns _white_; The fire burns _blue_; The eggs boil _hard_."

5. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is understood, the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase; as, "In general, in particular;" that is, generally, particularly.

6. Adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify; as, "A tract of _good_ land."

7. We should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not literally admit of comparison; such as, _more impossible, most impossible; more unconquerable, more perfect_, &c. See REMARKS on adjectives, page 76.

8. When an adjective or an adverb is used in comparing two objects, it should be in the comparative degree; but when more than two are compared, the superlative ought to be employed; as, "Julia is the _taller_ of the two; Her specimen is the _best_ of the three."

FALSE SYNTAX.

_Note_ 2. The boat carries thirty tun.

The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred fathom in depth.

_Note_ 6. He bought a new pair of shoes, and an elegant piece of furniture.

My cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract of land.

_Note_ 7. The contradictions of impiety are still more incomprehensible.

It is the most uncertain way that can be devised.

This is a more perfect model than I ever saw before.

_Note_ 8. Which of those two cords is the strongest?

I was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three.

RULE XIX.

Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or understood; as, "_Any_ man, _all_ men."

NOTE 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number with their nouns; as, "_This_ book, _these_ books; _that_ sort, _those_ sorts."

2. The pronominal adjectives, _each, every, either, neither, another_, and _one_, agree with nouns in the singular number only; as, "_Each_ man, _every_ person, _another_ lesson;" unless the plural nouns convey a collective idea: as, "_Every_ six months."

3. _Either_ is often improperly employed instead of _each;_ as, "The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat _either_ of them on his throne." _Each_ signifies _both_ taken separately; _either_ implies only _the one_ or _the other_ taken disjunctively:--"sat _each_ on _his_ throne."

FALSE SYNTAX.

_Note_ 1. Those sort of favors do real injury.

They have been playing this two hours.

These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. He saw one or more persons enter the garden.

_Note_ 2. Let each esteem others better than themselves.

There are bodies, each of which are so small as to be invisible.

Every person, whatever their station may be, are bound by the laws of morality and religion.

_Note_ 3. On either side of the river was the tree of life.

Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer.

RULE XX.

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case; as, "Cesar conquered _Pompey_;" "Columbus discovered _America_;" "Truth ennobles _her_."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Ye who were dead, hath he quickened.

_Ye_, in the nominative case, is erroneous, because it is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb "hath quickened;" and therefore it should be _you_, in the objective case. _You_ would then be governed by "hath quickened," agreeably, to Rule 20. _Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case_.

Who did they entertain so freely?

They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature.

He and they we know, but who are ye?

She that is negligent, reprove sharply.

He invited my brother and I to pay him a visit.

Who did they send on that mission?

They who he has most injured, he had the greatest reason to love.

RULE XXI.

The verb _to be_ may have the same case after it as before it; as, "_I_ am the _man_;" "I believe _it_ to have been _them;_" "_He_ is the _thief_."

NOTE 1. When nouns or pronouns next preceding and following the verb _to be_, signify the _same thing_, they are _in apposition_, and, therefore, in the _same case_. Rule 21 is predicated on the principle contained in Rule 7.

2. The verb _to be_ is often understood; as, "The Lord made _me man_; He made _him what_ he was;" that is, "The Lord made me _to be_ man; He made him _to be that which_ he was." "They desired me to call _them brethren_;" i.e. _by the name of_ brethren. "They named _him John_;" i.e. _by the name of_ John; or, by the _name_ John; putting these two nouns in _apposition_.

FALSE SYNTAX.

I know it to be they.

Improper, because _it_ is in the objective case before the verb "to be," and _they_ is in the nominative after; consequently, Rule 21 is violated. _They_ is in apposition with _it_, therefore _they_ should be _them_, in the objective after to be, according to Rule 21. (Repeat the Rule.)

Be composed, it is me.

I would not act thus, if I were him.

Well may you be afraid; it is him, indeed.

Who do you fancy him to to be?

Whom do men say that I am? Whom say ye that I am?

If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been?

He supposed it was me; but you knew that it was him.

RULE XXII.

Active-intransitive and passive verbs, the verb _to become_, and other neuter verbs, have the same case after them as before them, when both words refer to, and signify, the same thing; as, "_Tom_ struts a _soldier_;" "_Will_ sneaks a _scrivener_;" "_He_ was called _Cesar_;" "The _general_ was saluted _emperor_;" "_They_ have become _fools_."

NOTE 1. Active-intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive form, and govern the objective case; as, "_To dream_ a _dream; To run_ a _race; To walk_ the _horse; To dance_ the _child; To fly_ the _kite_."

2. According to a usage too common in colloquial style, an agent not literally the correct one, is employed as the nominative to a passive verb, which causes the verb to be followed by an _objective_ case without the possibility of supplying before it a preposition: thus, "_Pitticus_ was offered a large _sum_ by the king;" "_She_ was promised _them_ (the _jewels_) by her mother;" "_I_ was asked a _question_." It would be better sense, and more agreeable to the idiom of our language, to say, "A large _sum_ was offered _to Pitticus_;" "_They_ were promised _(to) her_;" "A _question_ was put _to me_."

3. Some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of compound active verbs. To _smile_, to _wonder_, to _dream_, are intransitive verbs, for which reason they have no passive voice; but, to _smile on_, to _wonder at_, to _dream of_, are compound active-transitive verbs, and, therefore, admit of a passive voice; as, "He _was smiled on_ by fortune; The accident is not _to be wondered at_;"

"There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, "Than _are dreamed of_ in your philosophy."

RULE XXIII.

A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun; as, "_Cease_ to do evil;" "We all have our _talent_ to be improved;" "She is _eager_ to learn;" "They are _preparing_ to go;" "Let _him_ do it."

ILLUSTRATION. The supposed principle of _government_ referred to in this rule, may be thus illustrated. In the sentence, "Cease to do evil," the peculiar manner in which _cease_ is introduced, _requires_ or _compels_ us to put the verb _do_ in the infinitive mood; and, according to the genius of our language, we cannot express this act of doing, when thus connected with _cease_, in any other mood, unless we change the construction of the sentence. Hence we say, that _cease_ governs the mood of the verb _do_. Similar remarks may be applied to the words _talent_, _eager_, _preparing_, and _him_, in the respective examples under the rule.

Many respectable grammarians refer the government of this mood invariably to the preposition _to_ prefixed, which word they do not, of course, consider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with some plausibility, that this mood is not governed by any particular word. If we reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood, the following rule, if substituted for the foregoing, might, perhaps, answer all practical purposes.

RULE.

A verb in the infinitive mood, refers to some noun or pronoun, as its subject or actor.

ILLUSTRATION of the examples under Rule XXIII. "To do" refers to _thou_ understood for its agent; "to be improved" refers to _talent_; "to learn," to _she_; "to go," to _they_; and "to do," refers to _him_.

NOTE 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest of the sentence; as, "_To confess_ the truth, I was in fault."

2. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or adverbs; as, "An object so high _as to be_ invisible;" "He is wise _enough to deceive_;" "The army is _about to march_."

RULE XXIV.

The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is frequently put as the nominative case to a verb, or the object of an active-transitive verb; as, "_To play_ is pleasant;" "Boys love _to play_;" "_That warm climates shorten life_, is reasonable to suppose;" "He does not consider _how near he approaches to his end_."

NOTE. _To_, the sign of the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly omitted; as, "I heard him _say_ it;" instead of, "to _say_ it."

RULE XXV.

The verbs which follow _bid_, _dare_, _need_, _make_, _see_, _hear_, _feel_, _help_, _let_, and their participles, are in the infinitive mood without the sign _to_ prefixed; as, "He bids me _come_;" "I dare _engage_;" "Let me _go_;" "Help me _do it_;" i.e. _to come_, _to go_, _to do_ it, &c. "He is _hearing_ me _recite_."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Bid him to come.

He durst not to do it without permission.

Hear him to read his lesson.

It is the difference in their conduct, which makes us to approve the one, and to reject the other.

It is better live on a little, than outlive a great deal.

I wish him not wrestle with his happiness.

RULE XXVI.

Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived; as, "I saw the tutor _instructing_ his _pupils_."

NOTE. The present participle with the definite article _the_ before it, becomes a noun, and must have the preposition _of_ after it. _The_ and _of_ must both be used, or both be omitted; as, "By _the_ observing _of_ truth, you will command respect;" or, "By observing truth," &c.

FALSE SYNTAX.

_Note_. We cannot be wise and good without the taking pains for it.

The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting up kings, belong to Providence alone.

These are the rules of grammar, by observing of which you may avoid mistakes.

RULE XXVII.

The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting the subject or actor; as, "I see a _boy running_."

RULE XXVIII.

The perfect participle belongs, like an adjective, to some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood; as, "I saw the boy _abused_."

NOTE 1. Participles of neuter verbs have the same case after them as before them; as, "_Pontius Pilate_ being _Governor_ of Judea, and _Herod_ being _Tetrarch_," &c.

2. A participle with its adjuncts, may sometimes be considered as a substantive or participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition; as, "_Taking from another without his knowledge or assent_, is called stealing; He studied to avoid _expressing himself too severely_; I cannot fail of _having money_, &c.; By _promising much and performing but little_, we become despicable."

3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense of irregular verbs, are sometimes different in their form, care must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, 'He begun,' for 'he began;' 'He run,' for 'he ran;' 'He come,' for 'he came;' the participles being here used instead of the imperfect tense; and much more frequently is the imperfect tense employed instead of the participle; as, 'I had wrote,' for 'I had written;' 'I was chose,' for 'I was chosen;' 'I have eat,' for 'I have eaten.' 'He would have spoke;'--_spoken_. 'He overrun his guide;'--_overran_. 'The sun had rose;'--_risen_.

FALSE SYNTAX.

I seen him. I have saw many a one.

_Seen_ is improper, the perfect participle being used instead of the imperfect tense of the verb. It ought to be, "I _saw_ him," according to Note 3, _Have saw_ is also erroneous, the imperfect tense being employed instead of the perfect participle. The perfect tense of a verb is formed by combining the auxiliary _have_ with its perfect participle: therefore the sentence should be written thus, "I have _seen_ many a one:" Note 3.

_Note_ 3. He done me no harm, for I had wrote my letter before he come home.

Had not that misfortune befel my cousin, he would have went to Europe long ago.

The sun had already arose, when I began my journey.

Since the work is began, it must be prosecuted.

The French language is spoke in every state in Europe.

He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they writ on the same subject.

RULE XXIX.

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs; as, "A _very good_ pen _writes extremely well_;" "By _living temperately_," &c.

NOTE 1. Adverbs are generally set before adjectives or adverbs, after verbs, or between the auxiliary and the verb; as, "He made a _very sensible_ discourse, and was _attentively_ heard."