Chapter 21

Remove yon scull from out the scattered heaps. Is that a temple, where a God may dwell? Why, ev'n the worm at last disdains her shattered cell! Look on its broken arch, its ruined wall, Its chambers desolate, and portals foul; Yes, this was once ambition's airy hall, The dome of thought, the palace of the soul. Behold, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole, The gay recess of wisdom and of wit, And passion's host, that never brooked control. Can all, saint, sage, or sophist ever writ, People this lonely tower, this tenement refit?

TRANSPOSED.

Remove thou yonder scull out from the scattered heaps. Is that a temple, where a God may dwell? Why, even the worm at last disdains her shattered cell! Look thou on its broken arch, and look thou on its ruined wall, and on its desolate chambers, and on its foul portals:--yes, this scull was once ambition's airy hall; (_it was_) the dome of thought, the palace of the soul. Behold thou, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole, the gay recess of wisdom and of wit, and passion's host, which never brooked control. Can all the works which saints, or sages, or sophists have ever written, repeople this lonely tower, or can they refit this tenement?

For your future exercises in parsing, you may select pieces from the English Reader, or any other grammatical work. I have already hinted, that parsing in poetry, as it brings more immediately into requisition the reasoning faculties, than parsing in prose, will necessarily tend more rapidly to facilitate your progress: therefore it is advisable that your future exercises in this way, be chiefly confined to the analysis of poetry. Previous to your attempting to parse a piece of poetry, you ought always to transpose it, in a manner similar to the examples just presented; and then it can be as easily analyzed as prose.

Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false syntax, you may turn back and read over the whole thirteen lectures, unless you have the subject-matter already stored in your mind.

* * * * *

LECTURE XIV.

OF DERIVATION.

At the commencement of Lecture II., I informed you that Etymology treats, 3dly, of derivation. This branch of Etymology, important as it is, cannot be very extensively treated in an elementary work on grammar. In the course of the preceding lectures, it has been frequently agitated; and now I shall offer a few more remarks, which will doubtless be useful in illustrating some of the various methods in which one word is derived from another. Before you proceed, however, please to turn back and read again what is advanced on this subject on page 27, and in the PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

1. Nouns are derived from verbs. 2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs. 3. Adjectives are derived from nouns. 4. Nouns are derived from adjectives. 5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives.

1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, from "to love," comes "lover;" from "to visit, visiter;" from "to survive, surviver," &c.

In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to determine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the noun from the verb, _viz_. "Love, to love; hate, to hate; fear, to fear; sleep, to sleep; walk, to walk; ride, to ride; act, to act," &c.

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs; as, from the noun _salt_, comes "to salt;" from the adjective _warm_, "to warm;" and from the adverb _forward_, "to forward." Sometimes they are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant; as, from "grass, to graze;" sometimes by adding _en_; as, from "length, to lengthen;" especially to adjectives; as, from "short, to shorten; bright, to brighten."

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns in the following manner: adjectives denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding _y_; as, from "Health, healthy; wealth, wealthy; might, mighty," &c.

Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing is made, are derived from nouns by adding _en_; as, from "Oak, oaken; wood, wooden; wool, woollen," &c.

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns by adding _ful_; as, from "Joy, joyful; sin, sinful; fruit, fruitful," &c.

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, are derived from nouns by adding _some_; as, from "Light, lightsome; trouble, troublesome; toil, toilsome," &c.

Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by adding _less_; as, from "Worth, worthless;" from "care, careless; joy, joyless," &c.

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns by adding _ly_; as, from "Man, manly; earth, earthly; court, courtly," &c.

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from nouns by adding _ish_ to them; which termination when added to adjectives, imports diminution, or lessening the quality; as, "White, whitish;" i.e. somewhat white. When added to nouns, it signifies similitude or tendency to a character; as, "Child, childish; thief, thievish."

Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs by adding the termination _able_; and those adjectives signify capacity; as, "Answer, answerable; to change, changeable."

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding the termination _ness_; as, "White, whiteness; swift, swiftness;" sometimes by adding _th_ or _t_, and making a small change in some of the letters; as, "Long, length; high, height."

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding _ly_, or changing _le_ into _ly_; and denote the same quality as the adjectives from which they are derived; as, from "base," comes "basely;" from "slow, slowly;" from "able, ably."

There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, that it would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to enumerate them. The primitive words of every language are very few; the derivatives form much the greater number. A few more instances only can be given here.

Some nouns are derived from other nouns, by adding the terminations _hood_ or _head, ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, ian, ment_, and _age_.

Nouns ending in _hood_ or _head_, are such as signify character or qualities; as, "Manhood, knighthood, falsehood," &c.

Nouns ending in _ship_, are those that signify office, employment, state, or condition; as, "Lordship, stewardship, partnership," &c. Some nouns in _ship_ are derived from adjectives; as, "Hard, hardship," &c.

Nouns which end in _ery_, signify action or habit; as, "Slavery, foolery, prudery," &c. Some nouns of this sort come from adjectives; as, "Brave, bravery," &c.

Nouns ending in _wick, rick_, and _dom_, denote dominion, jurisdiction, or condition; as, "Bailiwick, bishopric, kingdom, dukedom, freedom," &c.

Nouns which end in _ian_, are those that signify profession; as, "Physician, musician," &c. Those that end in _ment_ and _age_, come generally from the French, and commonly signify the act or habit; as, "Commandment," "usage."

Some nouns ending in _ard_, are derived from verbs or adjectives, and denote character or habit; as, "Drunk, drunkard; dote, dotard."

Some nouns have the form of diminutives; but these are not many. They are formed by adding the terminations _kin, ling, ing, ock, el_, and the like; as, "Lamb, lambkin; goose, gosling; duck, duckling; hill, hillock; cock, cockerel," &c.

OF PREPOSITIONS USED AS PREFIXES.

I shall conclude this lecture by presenting and explaining a list of Latin and Greek prepositions which are extensively used in English as prefixes. By carefully studying their signification, you will be better qualified to understand the meaning of those words into the composition of which they enter, and of which they form a material part.

I. LATIN PREFIXES.

_A, ab, abs_--signify from or away; as, _a-vert_, to turn from; _ab-ject_, to throw away; _abs-tract_, to draw away.

_Ad_--to or at; as, _ad-here_, to stick to; _ad-mire_, to wonder at.

_Ante_--means before; as, _ante-cedent_, going before.

_Circum_--signifies round, about; as, _circum-navigate_, to sail round.

_Con, com, co, col_--together; as, _con-join_, to join together; _com-press_, to press together; _co-operate_, to work together; _col-lapse_, to fall together.

_Contra_--against; as, _contra-dict_, to speak against.

_De_--from, down; as, _de-duct_, to take from; _de-scend_, to go down.

_Di, dis_--asunder, away; as, _di-lacerate_, to tear asunder; _dis-miss_, to send away.

_E, ef, ex_--out; as, _e-ject_, to throw out; _ef-flux_, to flow out; _ex-clude_, to shut out.

_Extra_--beyond; as, _extra-ordinary_, beyond what is ordinary.

_In, im, il, ir_--(_in_, Gothic, _inna_, a cave or cell;) as, _in-fuse_, to pour in. These prefixes, when incorporated with adjectives or nouns, commonly reverse their meaning; as, _in-sufficient, im-polite, il-legitimate, ir-reverence, ir-resolute_.

_Inter_--between; as, _inter-pose_, to put between.

_Intro_--within, into; _intro-vert_, to turn within; _intro-duce_, to lead into.

_Ob, op_--denote opposition; as, _ob-ject_, to bring against; _op-pugn_, to oppose.

_Per_--through, by; as, _per-ambulate_, to walk through; _per-haps_, by haps.

_Post_--after; as, _post-script_, written after; _post-fix_, placed after.

_Præ, pre_--before; as, _pre-fix_, to fix before.

_Pro_--for, forth, forward; as, _pro-noun_, for a noun; _pro-tend_, to stretch forth; _pro-ject_, to shoot forward.

_Præter_--past, beyond; as, _preter-perfect_, pastperfect; _preter-natural_, beyond the course of nature.

_Re_--again or back; as, _re-peruse_, to peruse again; _re-trade_, to trade back.

_Retro--_backwards; as, _retro-spective_, looking backwards.

_Se_--aside, apart; as, _se-duce_, to draw aside.

_Sub_--under; as, _sub-scribe_, to write under, or _sub-sign_.

_Subter_--under; as, _subter-fluous_, flowing under.

_Super_--above or over; as, _super-scribe_, to write above; _super-vise_, to overlook.

_Trans_--over, beyond, from one place to another; as, _trans-port_, to carry over; _trans-gress_, to pass beyond.

II. GREEK PREFIXES.

_A_--signifies privation; as, _anonymous_, without name.

_Amphi_--both or two; as, _amphi-bious_, partaking of both or two natures,

_Anti_--against; as, _anti-masonry_, against masonry.

_Dia_--through; as, _dia-meter_, line passing through a circle.

_Hyper_--over; as, _hyper-critical_, over or too critical.

_Hypo_--under, implying concealment or disguise; as, _hypo-crite_, one dissembling his real character.

_Meta--_denotes change or transmutation; as, _meta-morphose_, to change the shape.

_Para_--contrary or against; as, _para-dox_, a thing contrary to received opinion.

_Peri_--round about; as, _peri-phrasis_, circumlocution.

_Syn, syl, sym_--together; as, _syn-tax_, a placing together; _syn-od_, a meeting or coming together; _syl-lable_, that portion of a word which is taken together; _sym-pathy_, fellow-feeling, or feeling together.

RULES OF SYNTAX,

WITH ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX, which treats of the agreement and government of words and of their proper arrangement in a sentence.

SYNTAX consists of two parts, _Concord_ and _Government_.

CONCORD is the agreement which one word has with another, in gender, person, number, or case.

For the illustration of agreement and government, see pages 52, and 53.

For the definition of a sentence, and the transposition of its words and members, see pages 119, 124, 128, and 167.

The principal parts of a simple sentence are the _nominative_ or subject, the _verb_ or attribute, or word that makes the affirmation, and the _object_, or thing affected by the action of the verb; as, "A wise _man governs_ his _passions_." In this sentence, _man_ is the subject; _governs_, the attribute; and _passions_ the object.

A PHRASE is two or more words rightly put together, making sometimes a part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence.

ELLIPSIS is the omission of some word or words, in order to avoid disagreeable and unnecessary repetitions, and to express our ideas concisely, and with strength and elegance.

In this recapitulation of the rules, Syntax is presented in a condensed form, many of the essential NOTES being omitted. This is a necessary consequence of my general plan, in which Etymology and Syntax, you know are blended. Hence, to acquire a complete knowledge of Syntax from this work, you must look over the whole.

You may now proceed and parse the following additional exercises in false Syntax; and, as you analyze, endeavor to correct all the errors without looking at the Key. If, in correcting these examples, you should be at a loss in assigning the reasons why the constructions are erroneous, you can refer to the manner adopted in the foregoing pages.

RULE I.

The article _a_ or _an_ agrees with nouns in the _singular_ number only, individually or collectively; as, "_A_ star, _an_ eagle, _a_ score, _a_ thousand."

RULE II.

The definite article _the_ belongs to nouns in the _singular_ or _plural_ number; as, "_The_ star, _the_ stars; _the_ hat, _the_ hats."

NOTE 1. A nice distinction in the meaning is sometimes effected by the use or omission of the article _a_. If I say, "He behaved with _a_ little reverence," my meaning is positive. But if I say, "He behaved with little reverence," my meaning is negative. By the former, I rather praise a person; by the latter, I dispraise him. When I say, "There were few men with him," I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable; whereas, when I say, "There were a few men with him," I evidently intend to make the most of them.

2. The indefinite article sometimes has the meaning of _every_ or _each_; as, "They cost five shillings _a_ dozen;" that is, '_every_ dozen.'

"A man he was to all the country dear, And passing rich with forty pounds _a_ year!"

that is, '_every_ year.'

3. When several adjectives are connected, and express the various qualities of things individually different, though alike in name, the article should be repeated; but when the qualities all belong to the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated. "_A_ black and _a_ white calf," signifies, A black _calf_, and a white _calf_; but "_A_ black and white calf," describes the two colors of _one_ calf.

RULE III.

The nominative case governs the verb; as, "_I_ learn, _thou_ learnest, _he_ learns, _they_ learn."

RULE IV.

The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person; as, "The bird _sings_, the birds _sing_, thou _singest_."

NOTE 1. Every verb, when it is not in the infinitive mood, must have a nominative, expressed or implied; as, "Awake, arise;" that is, Awake _ye_; arise _ye_.

2. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be considered as the subject of the affirmation, it must agree with that which is more naturally its subject; as, "The wages of sin _is_ death; His meat _was_ locusts and wild honey;" "His pavilion _were_ dark _waters_ and thick _clouds_."

EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX.

Frequent commission of sin harden men in it. Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. So much both of ability and merit, are seldom found. The sincere is always esteemed. Not one of them are happy. What avails the best sentiments, if people do not live suitably to them? Disappointments sinks the heart of man; but the renewal of hope give consolation. The variety of the productions of genius, like that of the operations of nature; are without limit. A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us. Thou cannot heal him, it is true, but thou may do something to relieve him. In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man.

O thou, my voice inspire, Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. _Note_ 1. Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind, And never, never be to Heaven resigned?

He was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage the business.

_Note 2_. The crown of virtue is peace and honor. His chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy.

RULE V.

When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put in the nominative case _independent_; as, "_Plato_, thou reasonest well;" "Do, _Trim_, said my uncle Toby."

NOTE 1. A noun is independent, when it has no verb to agree with it.

2. Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the _first_ person after them, but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the _second_ or _third_ person; as, "Ah! _me_; Oh! _thou_; O! _virtue_."

RULE VI.

A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case _absolute_; as, "_Shame being lost_; all virtue is lost;" "The _sun being risen_, we travelled on."

NOTE. Every nominative case, except the case absolute and independent, should belong to some verb expressed or understood; as, "To whom thus _Adam_;" that is, _spoke_.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Him Destroyed, Or won to what may work his utter loss, All this will follow soon.

_Note_.--Two substantives, when they come together, and do not signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive case.

Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so constituted as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit.

RULE VII.

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case; as, "_Paul_, the _apostle;_" "_Joram_, the _king;_" "_Solomon_, the _son_ of David, _king_ of Israel, wrote many proverbs."

NOTE. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence; as, "The sheriff has just seized and sold his valuable library--_(which was) a misfortune_ that greatly depressed him."

FALSE SYNTAX.

We ought to love God, he who created and sustains all things.

The pronoun _he_ in this sentence, is improperly used in the nominative case. It is the object of the action of the transitive verb "love," and put by apposition with "God;" therefore it should be the objective case, _him_, according to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule, and correct the following.)

I saw Juliet and her brother, they that you visited.

They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before.

It was John, him who preached repentance.

Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July 1826, were both signers and the firm supporters of the Declaration of Independence.

Augustus the Roman emperor, him who succeeded Julius Cesar, is variously described by historians.

RULE VIII.

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the _singular_ number, connected by copulative conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing with them in the _plural_; as, "Socrates _and_ Plato _were_ wise; _they_ were eminent _philosophers_."

NOTE 1. When _each_ or _every_ relates to two or more nominatives in the singular, although connected by a copulative, the verb must agree with each of them in the singular; as, "_Every_ leaf, _and every_ twig, _and every_ drop of water, _teems_ with life."

2. When the singular nominative of a complex sentence, has another noun joined to it with a preposition, it is customary to put the verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the singular; as, "Prosperity with humility, _renders its_ possessor truly amiable;" "The General, also, in conjunction with the officers, _has_ applied for redress."

FALSE SYNTAX.

Coffee and sugar grows in the West Indies: it is exported in large quantities.

Two singular nouns coupled together, form a plural idea. The verb _grow_ is improper, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives, "coffee and sugar," which two nominatives are connected by the copulative conjunction, _and_; therefore the verb should be plural, _grow_; and then it would agree with coffee _and_ sugar, according to Rule 8. (Repeat the Rule.) The pronoun _it_, as it represents both the nouns, "coffee and sugar," ought also to be plural, _they_, agreeably to Rule 8. The sentence should be written thus. "Coffee and sugar _grow_ in the West Indies: _they are_ exported in large quantities."

Time and tide waits for no man.

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains.

Life and health is both uncertain.

Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity.

The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean, affects the mind with sensations of astonishment.

What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when you think you have no need of assistance?

Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished.

Why is whiteness and coldness in snow?

Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy mother; bind it continually upon thy heart.

Pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in the eyes of the judicious.

There is error and discrepance in the schemes of the orthoepists, which shows the impossibility of carrying them into effect.

EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE.

Every man, woman, and child, were numbered.

Not proper; for, although _and_ couples things together so as to present the whole at one view, yet _every_ has a contrary effect: it distributes them, and brings each separately and singly under consideration. _Were_ numbered is therefore improper. It should be, "_was_ numbered," in the singular, according to the Note. (Repeat it.)

When benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts, every person and every occurrence are beheld in the most favorable light.

RULE IX.

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the _singular_ number, connected by disjunctive conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing with them in the _singular_; as, "Neither John _nor_ James _has_ learned _his_ lesson."

NOTE 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree, in person, with that which is placed nearest to it; as, "Thou _or_ I _am_ in fault; I _or_ thou _art_ to blame; I, _or_ thou, _or_ he, _is_ the author of it." But it would be better to say "Either I am to blame or thou art," &c.

2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and a plural one, the verb must agree with the plural noun or pronoun, which should generally be placed next to the verb; as, "Neither poverty _nor riches_ were injurious to him;" "I _or_ they were offended by it."

Constructions like these ought generally to be avoided.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake.

The verb, _have_ caused, in this sentence, is improperly used in the plural, because it expresses the action, not of _both_, but of either the one or the other of its nominatives; therefore it should be in the singular, _has_ caused; and then it would agree with "ignorance _or_ negligence," agreeably to Rule 9 (Repeat the Rule.)

A circle or a square are the same in idea.

Neither whiteness nor redness are in the porphyry.

Neither of them are remarkable for precision.

Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely as they are moved.

When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the sincerity of friendship is proved.

Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his own hands.

Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life, for they may be thy own lot.

The prince, as well as the people, were blameworthy.

RULE X.

A collective noun or noun of multitude, conveying _unity_ of idea, generally has a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the _singular_; as, "The _meeting was_ large, and _it_ held three hours."

NOTE. Rules 10, and 11, are limited in their application. See page.

FALSE SYNTAX.

The nation are powerful.

The fleet were seen sailing up the channel.