Chapter 15

From what words is the term pronoun derived?--Do pronouns always avoid the repetition of nouns?--Name the three kinds of pronouns.--What distinguishes the personal from the relative pronouns?--How many personal pronouns are there?--Repeat them.--What belong to pronouns?--Is gender applied to all the personal pronouns?--To which of them is it applied?--Which of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termination to denote their gender?--How many persons have pronouns?--Speak them in their different persons.--How many numbers have pronouns?--How many cases?--What are they?--Decline all the personal pronouns.--When _self_ is added to the personal pronouns, what are they called, and how are they used?--When is _you_ singular in sense?--Is it ever singular in form?--Why are the words, _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_, called personal pronouns?--Why are the words, _mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs_, denominated compound pers. pron.?--How do you parse these compounds?--What is said of _others_?--Repeat the order of parsing a personal pronoun.--What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the first person, and in the nom. case?--What rule when the pronoun is in the possessive case?--What Rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third person?--What Rules in parsing the compounds, _yours, ours, mine_, &c.?--What is said of the pronoun _it_?

What are adjective pronouns?--Name the three kinds.--What does _each_ relate to?--To what does _every_ relate?--To what does _either_ relate?--What does _neither_ import?--To what do _this_ and _these_ refer?--Give examples.--To what do _that_ and _those_ refer?--Give examples.--Repeat all the adjective pronouns.--When adj. pronouns belong to nouns understood, how are they parsed?--When they stand for, or represent nouns, what are they called?--Give examples.--Repeat the order of parsing an adj. pronoun.--What Rule do you apply in parsing the indefinite adjective pronouns?--What Notes, in parsing the distributives and demonstratives?

What are relative pronouns?--Repeat them.--From what words is the term antecedent derived?--What does _antecedent_ mean?--Are relatives varied on account of gender, person, or number?--To what are _who_ and _which_ applied?--To what is _that_ applied?--Should _who_ ever be applied to irrational beings or children?--In what instances may _which_ be applied to persons?--Decline the rel. pronouns.--Can _which_ and _that_ be declined?--Is _that_ ever used as three parts of speech?--Give examples.--What part of speech is the word _what_?--Is _what_ ever used as three kinds of a pronoun?--Give examples.--What is said of _whoever_?--What words are used as interrogative pronouns?--Give examples.--When are the words, _what, which_, and _that_, called adj. pron.?--When are they called interrogative pronominal adjectives?--What is said of _whatever_ and _whichever_?--Is _what_ ever used as an interjection?--Give examples.--Repeat the order of parsing a rel. pron.--What Rules do you apply in parsing a relative?--What Rules in parsing a compound relative?--What Rules in parsing an interrogative?--Does the relative _which_ ever relate to a sentence for its antecedent?--When does the conjunction _as_ become a relative?--Give examples.

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

NOTE 1, to RULE 13. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb, it must be in the nominative case.

Who will go? Him and I. How does thee do? Is thee well?

"Him and I;" not proper, because the pronoun _him_ is the subject of the verb _will go_ understood, therefore him should be in the nominative case, _he_, according to the above NOTE. (Repeat the NOTE.) _Him_ and I are connected by the conjunction _and_, and _him_ is in the obj. case, and I in the nom., therefore RULE 33d, is violated. (Repeat the Rule.) In the second and third examples, _thee_ should be _thou_, according to the NOTE. The verbs, _does_ and _is_, are of the third person, and the nom. _thou_ is second, for which reason the verbs should be of the second person, _dost do_ and _art_, agreeably to RULE 4. You may correct the other examples, _four_ times over.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Him and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be attentive. Him who is careless, will not improve. They can write as well as me. This is the man whom was expected. Her and I deserve esteem. I have made greater proficiency than him. Whom, of all my acquaintances, do you think was there? Whom, for the sake of his important services, had an office of honor bestowed upon him.

NOTE 2, to RULE 13. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of nouns, should not be employed in the same member of the sentence with the noun which they represent.

FALSE SYNTAX.

The men they are there. I saw him the king. Our cause it is just. Many words they darken speech. That noble general who had gained so many victories, he died, at last, in prison. Who, instead of going about doing good, they are continually doing evil.

In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should be omitted, according to Note 2.

NOTE 3, to RULE 13. A personal pronoun in the objective case, should not be used instead of _these_ and _those_.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Remove them papers from the desk. Give me them books. Give them men their discharge. Observe them three there. Which of them two persons deserves most credit?

In all these examples, _those_ should be used in place of _them_. The use of the personal, _them_, in such constructions, presents two objectives after one verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may be avoided by employing an adjective pronoun in its stead.

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LECTURE IX.

OF CONJUNCTIONS.

A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound sentence: it sometimes connects only words; as, "Thou _and_ he are happy, _because_ you are good."

Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining sentences in different ways, mark the connexions and various dependances of human thought. They belong to language only in its refined state.

The term CONJUNCTION comes from the two Latin words, _con_, which signifies _together_, and _jungo_, to _join_. A conjunction, then, is a word that conjoins, or joins together something. Before you can fully comprehend the nature and office of this sort of words, it is requisite that you should know what is meant by a sentence, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence, for conjunctions are chiefly used to connect sentences.

A SENTENCE is an assemblage of words forming complete sense.

A SIMPLE SENTENCE contains but one subject, or nominative, and one verb which agrees with that nominative; as, "_Wheat grows_ in the field."

You perceive that this sentence contains several words besides the nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sentence containing many parts of speech; but, if it has only one nominative and one _finite_ verb, (that is, a verb _not_ in the infinitive mood,) it is a simple sentence, though it is longer than many compound sentences.

A COMPOUND SENTENCE is composed of two or more simple sentences connected together; as, "_Wheat grows_ in the field, and _men reap_ it."

This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two simple sentences joined together by the word _and_; which word, on account of its connecting power, is called a conjunction. If we write this sentence without the conjunction, it becomes two simple sentences: thus, "Wheat grows in the field. Men reap it."

The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easily illustrated. After expressing one thought or sentiment, you know we frequently wish to _add_ another, or several others, which are closely connected with it. We generally effect this addition by means of the conjunction: thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice _and_ cotton;" that is, "They cultivate rice _add_ cotton." This sentence is compound, and without the use of the conjunction, it would be written in two separate, simple sentences: thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate cotton." The conjunction, though chiefly used to connect sentences, sometimes connects only words; in which capacity it is nearly allied to the preposition; as, "The sun _and (add)_ the planets constitute the solar system." In this, which is a simple sentence, _and_ connects two _words_.

A few more examples will illustrate the nature, and exhibit the use of this part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fully to comprehend it. The following simple sentences and members of sentences, have no relation to each other until they are connected by conjunctions. He labors harder--more successfully--I do. That man is healthy--he is temperate. By filling up the vacancies in these sentences with conjunctions, you will see the importance of this sort of words: thus, He labors harder _and_ more successfully _than_ I do. That man is healthy _because_ he is temperate.

Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Copulative and Disjunctive.

I. The Conjunction _Copulative_ serves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition, a supposition, or a cause; as, "Two _and_ three are five; I will go _if_ he will accompany me; You are happy _because_ you are good."

In the first of these examples, _and_ joins on a word that expresses an _addition_; in the second, _if_ connects a member that implies a _supposition_ or _condition_; and in the third, _because_ connects a member that expresses a _cause_.

II. The Conjunction _Disjunctive_ serves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member that expresses opposition of meaning; as, "They came with her, _but_ they went away without her."

_But_ joins on a member of this sentence which expresses, not only something added, but, also, _opposition_ of meaning.

The principal conjunctions, may be known by the following _lists_, which you may now commit to memory. Some words in these lists, are, however, frequently used as adverbs, and sometimes as prepositions; but if you study well the nature of all the different sorts of words, you cannot be at a loss to tell the part of speech of any word in the language.

LISTS OF THE CONJUNCTIONS.

_Copulative_. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, wherefore, provided, besides.

_Disjunctive_. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless, except, whether, whereas, as well as.

Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunctions, so that, in the subsequent member of the sentence, the latter answers to the former; as,

1. _Though_--_yet_ or _nevertheless_; as, "_Though_ he was rich, _yet_ for our sakes he became poor."

2. _Whether_--_or_; as, "_Whether_ he will go, _or_ not, I cannot tell." It is improper to say, "Whether he will go or _no_."

3. _Either_--_or_; as, "I will _either_ send it, _or_ bring it myself."

4. _Neither--nor_; as, "_Neither_ thou _nor_ I can comprehend it."

5. _As_--_as_; as, "She is _as_ amiable _as_ her sister."

6. _As_--_so_; as, "_As_ the stars, _so_ shall thy seed be."

7. _So_--_as_; as, "To see thy glory, _so as_ I have seen thee in the sanctuary."

8. _So_--_that_; as, "He became _so_ vain, _that_ everyone disliked him."

NOTES.

1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simple _sentences_ only, and form them into compound _sentences_; such as, further, again, besides, &c. Others are employed to connect simple _members_ only, so as to make them compound _members_; such as, than, lest, unless, that, so that, if, though, yet, because, as well as, &c. But, and, therefore, or, nor, for, &c., connect either whole sentences, or simple members.

2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences; as, "Blessed is the man _who_ feareth the Lord, _and_ keepeth his commandments."

You will now please to turn back and read this lecture four or five times over; and then, after committing the following order, you may parse the subsequent exercises.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing a_ CONJUNCTION, is--a conjunction, and why?--copulative or disjunctive, and why?--what does it connect?

"Wisdom _and_ virtue _form_ the good man's character." _And_ is a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences; but in this example it connects only words--copulative, it serves to connect and continue the sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition--it connects the words "wisdom and virtue."

_Wisdom_ is a noun, the name of a thing--(You may parse it in full.)--_Wisdom_ is one of the nominatives to the verb "form."

_Virtue_ is a noun, the name, &c.--(Parse it in full:)--and in the nom. case to the verb "form," and connected to the noun "wisdom" by and, according to RULE 33. _Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case_.

_Form_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do, &c.--of the third person, _plural_, because its two nominatives, "wisdom and virtue," are connected by a copulative conjunction, agreeably to RULE 8. _Two or more nouns in the singular number, joined by_ copulative _conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the_ plural.

"Wisdom _or_ folly _governs_ us." _Or_ is a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences: it sometimes connects words--disjunctive, it serves not only to connect and continue the sentence, but also to join on a member which expresses opposition of meaning--it connects the nouns "wisdom and folly."

_Governs_ is a verb, a word that signifies, &e.--of the third person, singular number, agreeing with "wisdom or folly," according to RULE 9. _Two or more nouns singular, joined by_ disjunctive _conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the_ singular:

If you reflect, for a few moments, on the meaning of me last two Rules presented, you will see, at once, their propriety and importance. For example; in the sentence, "Orlando _and_ Thomas, _who study their lessons, make_ rapid progress," you notice that the two singular nouns, _Orlando_ and _Thomas_, are connected by the copulative conjunction _and_, therefore the verb _make_, which agrees with them, is plural, because it expresses the action of _both_ its nominatives or actors. And you observe, too, that the pronouns _who_ and _their_, and the noun _lessons_, are _plural_, agreeing with the nouns _Orlando_ and _Thomas_, according to RULE 8. The verb _study_ is plural, agreeing with _who_, according to RULE 4.

But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunction, and see how the sentence will read: "Orlando _or_ Thomas, _who studies his lesson, makes_ rapid progress." Now, you perceive, that a different construction takes place, for the latter expression does not imply, that Orlando and Thomas, _both_ study and make rapid progress; but it asserts, that either the one _or_ the other studies, and makes rapid progress. Hence the verb _makes_ is singular, because it expresses the action of the one _or_ the other of its nominatives. And you observe, too, that the pronouns _who_ and _his_, and the noun _lesson_, are likewise in the singular, agreeing with Orlando _or_ Thomas, agreeably to RULE 9. _Studies_ is also singular, agreeing with _who_, according to RULE 4.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Joseph and his brother reside in New York. The Sun, moon, and stars, admonish us of a superior and superintending Power. I respect my friend, because he is upright and obliging. Henry and William, who obey their teacher, improve rapidly. Henry or William, who obeys his teacher, improves very fast. Neither rank nor possession makes the guilty mind happy. Wisdom, virtue, and meekness, form the good man's happiness and interest: they support him in adversity, and comfort him in prosperity. Man is a little lower than the angels. The United States, as justly as Great Britain, can now boast of their literary institutions.

NOTE. The verb _form_ is plural, and agrees with three nouns singular, connected by copulative conjunctions, according to RULE 8. The verb _comfort_ agrees with _they_ for its nominative. It is connected to _support_ by the conjunction _and_, agreeably to RULE 34. _Angels_ is nom. to _are_ understood, and _Great Britain_ is nom. to _can boast_ understood, according to RULE 35.

REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS.

The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an adverb, or a preposition. "I submitted, _for_ it was in vain to resist;" in this example, _for_ is a conjunction, because it connects the two members of a compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, and governs _victory_ in the objective case: "He contended _for_ victory only."

In the first of the following sentences, _since_ is a conjunction; in the second, it is a preposition, and in the third, an adverb; "_Since_ we must part, let us do it peaceably; I have not seen him _since_ that time; Our friendship commenced long _since._"

"He will repent _before_ he dies; Stand _before_ me; Why did you not return _before_" [that or this _time_;] in the first of these three examples, _before_ is an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses time and connects; and in the second and third, it is a preposition.

As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its members. Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may sometimes be at a loss to perceive the _connecting_ power of a preposition or conjunction, for every preposition and every conjunction connects either words or phrases, sentences or members of sentences. Whenever a sentence begins with a preposition or conjunction, its members are transposed; as, "_In_ the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha;" "_If_ thou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee; but, _if_ thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever."

"_When_ coldness wraps this suffering clay, "Ah, whither strays the immortal mind?"

That the words _in, if_, and _when_, in these examples, connect the members of the respective sentences to which they are attached, will obviously appear if we restore these sentences to their natural order, and bring these particles _between_ the members which they connect: thus, "Elisha the prophet flourished _in_ the days of Joram, king of Israel;" "The Lord will be found of thee _if_ thou seek him; but he will cast thee off for ever _if_ thou forsake him:"

"Ah, whither strays the immortal mind, "_When_ coldness wraps this suffering clay?"

As an exercise on this lecture, you may now answer these QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

From what words is the term conjunction derived?--What is a sentence?--What is a simple sentence?--What is a compound sentence?--Give examples.--In what respect do conjunctions and prepositions agree in their nature?--How many sorts of conjunctions are there?--Repeat the lists of conjunctions.--Repeat some conjunctions with their corresponding conjunctions.--Do relative pronouns ever connect sentences?--Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction.--Do you apply any Rule in parsing a conjunction?--What Rule should be applied in parsing a noun or pronoun connected with another?--What Rule in parsing a verb agreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected by a copulative conjunction?--What Rule when the nouns are connected by a disjunctive?--In parsing a verb connected to another by a conjunction, what Rule do you apply?--Is a conjunction ever used as other parts of speech?--Give examples.--What is said of the words _for, since_, and _before?_--What is said of the transposition of sentences?

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PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

On scientific principles, our _connectives_, commonly denominated prepositions and conjunctions, are but one part of speech, the distinction between them being merely technical. Some conjunctions unite only words, and some prepositions connect sentences. They are derived from nouns and verbs; and the time has been, when, perhaps, in our language, they did not perform the office of connectives.

"I wish you to believe, _that_ I would not wilfully hurt a fly." Here, in the opinion of H. Tooke, our modern conjunction _that_, is merely a demonstrative adjective, in a disguised form; and he attempts to prove it by the following resolution: "I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe _that [assertion_."] Now, if we admit, that _that_ is an adjective in the latter construction, it does not necessarily follow, that it is the same part of speech, nor that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former construction. Instead of expressing our ideas in two detached sentences, by the former phraseology we have a quicker and closer transition of thought, and both the mode of employing _that_, and its _inferential_ meaning, are changed. Moreover, if we examine the meaning of each of these constructions, taken as a whole, we shall find, that they do not both convey the same ideas. By the latter, I assert, positively, that "I would not wilfully hurt a fly:" whereas, by the former, I merely _wish you to believe_ that "I would not wilfully hurt a fly;" but I do not _affirm_, that as a fact.

_That_ being the past part, of _thean_, to get, take, assume, by rendering it as a _participle_, instead of an adjective, we should come nearer to its primitive character. Thus, "I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe the _assumed [fact_ or _statement_;] or, the fact _assumed_ or _taken_."

_If_, (formerly written _gif, give, gin_,) as previously stated, is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb _gifan_, to give. In imitation of Horne Tooke, some of our modern philosophical writers are inclined to teach pupils to render it as a verb. Thus, "I will go, _if_ he will accompany me:"--"He will accompany me. _Grant_--_give_ that [fact] I will go." For the purpose of ascertaining the _primitive_ meaning of this word, I have no objection to such a resolution; but, by it, do we get the exact meaning and force of _if_ as it is applied in our modern, refined state of the language? I _trow_ not. But, admitting we do, does this prove that such a mode of resolving sentences can be advantageously adopted by learners in common schools? I presume it can not be denied, that instead of teaching the learner to express himself correctly in modern English, such a resolution is merely making him familiar with an ancient and barbarous construction which modern refinement has rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were governed by those laws of necessity which compel all nations in the early and rude state of their language, to express themselves in short, detached sentences, employed _if_ as a verb when they used the following circumlocution: "My son will reform. _Give that fact_. I will forgive him." But in the present, improved state of our language, by using _if_ as a _conjunction_, (for I maintain that it is one,) we express the same thought more briefly; and our modern mode of expression has, too, a decisive advantage over the ancient, not only in point of elegance, but also in perspicuity and force. In Scotland and the north of England, some people still make use of _gin_, a contraction of _given:_ thus, "I will pardon my son, _gin_ he reform." But who will contend, that they speak pure English?