Chapter 13

2. In order to avoid the disagreeable harshness of sound, occasioned by the frequent recurrence of the terminations _est, edst_, in the adaptation of our verbs to the nominative _thou_, a modern innovation which substitutes _you_ for _thou_, in familiar style, has generally been adopted. This innovation contributes greatly to the harmony of our colloquial style. _You_ was formerly restricted to the plural number; but now it is employed to represent either a singular or a plural noun. It ought to be recollected, however, that when used as the representative of a singular noun, this word retains its original _plural form_; and, therefore, the verb connected with it, should always be plural. Inattention to this peculiarity, has betrayed some writers into the erroneous conclusion, that, because _you_ implies unity when it represents a singular noun, it ought, when thus employed, to be followed by a singular verb; as, "When _was you_ there?" "How far _was you_ from the parties?" Such a construction, however, is not supported by _good_ usage, nor by analogy. It is as manifest a solecism as to say, We _am_, or we _is_. Were it, in any case, admissible to connect a singular verb with _you_, the use of _was_ would still be ungrammatical, for this form of the verb is confined to the first and third persons, and _you_ is second person. _Wast_ being second person, it would approximate nearer to correctness to say, you _wast_. We never use the singular of the present tense with you:--you _art_, you _is_; you _walkest_, you _walks_. Why, then, should any attempt be made to force a usage so unnatural and gratuitous as the connecting of the singular verb in the past tense with this pronoun? In every point of view, the construction, "When _were_ you there?" "How far _were_ you from the parties?" is preferable to the other.

3. The words _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_, are, by many, denominated _possessive adjective pronouns_; but they always _stand for_ nouns in the possessive case. They ought, therefore, to be classed with the _personal_ pronouns. That principle of classification which ranks them with the adjective pronouns, would also throw all nouns in the possessive case among the adjectives. Example: "The lady gave the gentleman _her_ watch for _his_ horse." In this sentence _her_ personates, or stands for, the noun "lady," and _his_ represents "gentleman." This fact is clearly shown by rendering the sentence thus, "The lady gave the gentleman the _lady's_ watch for the _gentleman's_ horse." If _lady's_ and _gentleman's_ are nouns, _her_ and _his_ must be personal pronouns. The same remarks apply to _my, thy, our, your, their_ and _its_. This view of these words may be objected to by those who speculate and refine upon the principles of grammar until they prove their non-existence, but it is believed, nevertheless, to be based on sound reason and common sense.

4. _Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs_, have, by many respectable grammarians, been considered merely the possessive cases of personal pronouns, whilst, by others, they have been denominated pronouns or nouns in the nominative or objective case. It is believed, however, that a little attention to the meaning and office of these words, will clearly show the impropriety of both these classifications. Those who pursue the former arrangement, allege, that, in the examples, "You may imagine what kind of faith _theirs_ was; My pleasures are past; _hers_ and _yours_ are to come; they applauded his conduct, but condemned _hers_ and _yours_," the words _theirs, hers_, and _yours_, are personal pronouns in the possessive case, and governed by their respective nouns understood. To prove this, they construct the sentence thus, "You may imagine what kind of faith _their faith_ was;--_her pleasures_ and _your pleasures_ are to come;--but condemned _her conduct_ and _your conduct_;" or thus, "You may imagine what kind of faith the faith of them was;--the pleasures of her and the pleasures of you, are to come;-- but condemned the conduct of her and the conduct of you." But these constructions, (both of which are correct,) prove too much for their purpose; for, as soon as we supply the nouns after these words, they are resolved into personal pronouns of kindred meaning, and the nouns which we supply: thus, _theirs_ becomes, their faith: _hers_, her pleasures; and _yours_, your pleasures. This evidently gives us two words instead of, and altogether distinct from, the first; so that, in parsing, _their faith_, we are not, in reality, analyzing _theirs_, but two other words of which _theirs_ is the proper representative. These remarks also prove, with equal force, the impropriety of calling these words merely simple pronouns or nouns in the nominative or objective case. Without attempting to develop the original or intrinsic meaning of these pluralizing adjuncts, _ne_ and _s_, which were, no doubt, formerly detached from the pronouns with which they now coalesce, for all practical purposes, it is sufficient for us to know, that, in the present application of these pronouns, they invariably stand for, not only the person possessing, but, also the thing possessed, which gives them a _compound_ character. They may, therefore, be properly denominated COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS; and, as they always perform a double office in a sentence by representing two other words, and, consequently, including two cases, they should, like the compound relative _what_, be parsed as two words. Thus, in the example, "You may imagine what kind of faith theirs was," _theirs_ is a compound personal pronoun, equivalent to _their faith. Their_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun; personal, it personates the persons spoken of, understood; third pers. plur. numb., &c.--and in the possessive case, and governed by "faith," according to Rule 12. _Faith_ is a noun, the name of a thing, &c. &c.--and in the nominative case to "was," and governs it; Rule 3. Or, if we render the sentence thus, "You may imagine what kind of faith _the faith of them[4]_ was," _faith_ would be in the nominative case to "was," and _them_ would be in the objective case, and governed by "of:" Rule 31.

[4] In the note next preceding, it is asserted, that my, thy, his, her, our your, and their, are personal pronouns. What can more clearly demonstrate the correctness of that assertion, than this latter construction of the word theirs? All admit, that, in the construction, "The faith _of them_," the word _them_, is a personal pronoun: and for this conclusive reason:--it represents a noun understood. What, then, is _their_, in the phrase, "their faith?" Is it not obvious, that, if _them_ is a personal pronoun, _their_ must be, also? for the latter represents the same noun as the former.

Objections to this method of treating these pronouns, will doubtless be preferred by those who assert, that a noun is understood after these words, and not represented by them. But this is assertion without proof; for, if a noun were understood, it might be supplied. If the question be put, whose book? and the answer be, _mine, ours, hers_, or _theirs_, the word book is included in such answer. Were it not included, we might supply it, thus, mine _book_, ours _book_, hers _book_, and so on. This, however, we cannot do, for it would be giving a _double_ answer: but when the question is answered by a noun in the possessive case, the word book is not included, but implied; as, Whose book? John's, Richard's; that is, John's _book_; Richard's _book_.

This view of the subject, without a parallel, except in the compounds _what, whoever_, and _others_, is respectfully submitted to the public; believing, that those who approve of a critical analysis of words, will coincide with me. Should any still be disposed to treat these words so superficially as to rank them among the simple pronouns, let them answer the following interrogatory: If _what_, when compound, should be parsed as two words, why not _mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours_, and _theirs_?

5. _Mine_ and _thine_, instead of _my_ and _thy_, are used in solemn style, before a word beginning with a vowel or silent _h_; as, "Blot out all _mine_ iniquities;" and when thus used, they are not compound. _His_ always has the same form, whether simple or compound; as, "Give John _his_ book; That desk is _his." Her_, when placed before a noun, is in the possessive case; as, Take _her_ hat: when standing alone, it is in the objective case; as, Give the hat to _her_.

When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, and committed the _declension_ of the personal pronouns, you may commit the following SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing a_ PERSONAL PRONOUN, is--a pronoun, and why?--personal, and why?--person, and why?--gender and number, and why?--RULE: case, and why?--RULE.--Decline it.

There are many peculiarities to be observed in parsing personal pronouns in their different persons; therefore, if you wish ever to parse them correctly, you must pay particular attention to the manner in which the following are analyzed. Now notice, particularly, and you will perceive that we apply only _one_ rule in parsing _I_ and _my_, and _two_ in parsing _thou, him_, and _they_.

"_I_ saw _my_ friend."

_I_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it represents the person speaking, understood--first person, it denotes the speaker--singular number, it implies but one--and in the nominative case, it represents the actor and subject of the verb "saw," and governs it, agreeably to RULE 3. _The nom. case gov. the verb_. Declined--first pers. sing. num. nom. I, poss. my or mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss. our or ours, obj. us.

_My_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it personates the person speaking, understood--first pers. it denotes the speaker--sing. num. it implies but one--and in the possessive case, it denotes possession; it is governed by the noun "friend", agreeably to RULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun it possesses_. Declined--first pers. sing. nom. I, poss. my or mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss. our or ours, obj. us.

"Young man, _thou_ hast deserted thy companion, and left _him_ in distress."

_Thou_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it personates "man"--second person, it represents the person spoken to--mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun "man" is for which it stands, according to RULE 13. _Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand in gender and number_.

_Thou_ is in the nom. case, it represents the actor and subject of the verb "hast deserted," and governs it agreeably to RULE 3. _The nom. case governs the verb._ Declined--sec. pers. sing. num. nom. thou, poss. thy or thine, obj. thee. Plur. nom. ye or you, poss. your or yours, obj. you.

_Him_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it personates "companion"--third pers. it represents the person spoken of--mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun "companion" is for which it stands: RULE 13. _Pers. pro. &c_. (Repeat the Rule.)--_Him_ is in the objective case, the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb "hast left," and gov. by it: RULE 20. _Active-trans. verbs gov. the obj. case_. Declined--third pers. mas. gend. sing. num. nom. he, poss. his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss. their or theirs, obj. them.

"Thrice I raised my voice, and called the chiefs to combat, but _they_ dreaded the force of my arm."

_They_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it represents "chiefs"--third pers. it denotes the persons spoken of--mas. gend. plur. num. because the noun "chiefs" is for which it stands: RULE 13. _Pers. Pron. &c_. (Repeat the Rule.) It is the nom. case, it represents the actors and subject of the verb "dreaded," and governs it: RULE 3. _The nom. case, gov. the verb_. Declined--third pers. mas. gend. sing. num. nom. he, poss. his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss. their or theirs, obj. them.

NOTE. We do not apply gender in parsing the personal pronouns, (excepting the third person singular,) if the nouns they represent are understood; and therefore we do not, in such instances, apply Rule 13. But when the noun is expressed, gender should be applied, and _two_ Rules.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

I saw a man leading his horse slowly over the new bridge. My friends visit me very often at my father's office. We improve ourselves by close application. Horace, thou learnest many lessons. Charles, you, by your diligence, make easy work of the task given you by your preceptor. Young ladies, you run over your lessons very carelessly. The stranger drove his horses too far into the water, and, in so doing, he drowned them.

Gray morning rose in the east. A green narrow vale appeared before us: its winding stream murmured through the grove. The dark host of Rothmar stood on its banks, with their glittering spears. We fought along the vale. They fled. Rothmar sunk beneath my sword. Day was descending in the west, when I brought his arms to Crothar. The aged hero felt them with his hands: joy brightened his thoughts.

NOTE. _Horace, Charles_, and _ladies_, are of the second person, and nom. case _independent_: see RULE 5, and NOTE. The first _you_ is used in the nom. poss. and obj. case.--It represents Charles, therefore it is _singular_ in sense, although plural in form. In the next example, _you_ personifies _ladies_, therefore it is _plural. Given_ is a perfect participle. _You_ following given, is governed by _to_ understood, according to NOTE 1, under Rule 32. _Run over_ is a compound verb. _And_ is a conjunction. The first _its_ personates vale; the second _its_ represents stream.

You may now parse the following examples three times over.

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

"Juliet, retain her paper, and present _yours_."

_Yours_ is a compound personal pronoun, representing both the possessor and the thing possessed, and is equivalent to _your paper_. _Your_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it personates "Juliet"--second person, it represents the person spoken to--fem. gender, sing. number, (singular in sense, but _plural_ in form,) because the noun Juliet is for which it stands: Rule 13. _Pers. Pron. &c_.--_Your_ is in the possessive case, it denotes possession, and is governed by "paper," according to Rule 12. _A noun or pron. &c._ (Repeat the Rule, and decline the pronoun.) _Paper_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, the name of a sort of things--neuter gender, it denotes a thing without sex--third person, spoken of--sing. number, it implies but one--and in the obj. case, it is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb "present," and governed by it: Rule 20. _Active-transitive verbs govern the obj. case_.

NOTE. Should it be objected, that _yours_ does not mean _your paper_, any more than it means _your book, your house, your_ any thing, let it be borne in mind, that pronouns have no _definite_ meaning, like other words; but their _particular_ signification is always determined by the nouns they represent.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Julia injured her book, and soiled mine: hers is better than mine. My friend sacrificed his fortune to secure yours: his deeds deserve reward; yours merit disgrace. Henry's labors are past; thine are to come. We leave your forests of beasts for ours of men. My sword and yours are kin.

NOTE. _She_ understood, is nominative to _soiled_, in the first example; and the substantive part of _mine_, after than, is nom. to _is_, understood: Rule 35. The verbs _to secure_ and _to come_ have no nominative. The pronouns _mine, my, yours, thine, we, your, ours, my_, and _yours_, personate nouns understood.

REMARKS ON _IT_.

For the want of a proper knowledge of this little pronoun _it_, many grammarians have been greatly puzzled how to dispose of it, or how to account for its multiform, and, seemingly, contradictory characters. It is in great demand by writers of every description. They use it without ceremony; either in the nominative or objective case; either to represent one person or thing, or more than one. It is applied to nouns in the masculine, feminine, or neuter gender, and, very frequently, it represents a member of a sentence, a whole sentence, or a number of sentences taken in a mass.

A little attention to its true character, will, at once, strip it of all its mystery. _It_, formerly written _hit_, according to H. Tooke, is the past participle of the Moeso-Gothic verb _haitan_. It means, _the said_, and, therefore, like its near relative _that_, meaning, _the assumed_, originally had no respect, in its application, to number, person, or gender. "_It_ is a wholesome law;" i.e. _the_ _said_ (law) is a wholesome law; or, _that_ (law) is a wholesome law;--_the assumed_ (law) is a wholesome law. "_It_ is the man; I believe _it_ to be them:"--_the said_ (man) is the man; _that_ (man) is the man: I believe _the said_ (persons) to be them; I believe _that_ persons (according to the ancient application of _that_) to be them. "_It_ happened on a summer's day, that many people were assembled," &c.--Many people were assembled: _it, that_, or _the said_ (fact or circumstance) happened on a summer's day.

_It_, according to its accepted meaning in modern times, is not referred to a noun understood after it, but is considered a substitute. "How is _it_ with you?" that is, "How is your _state_ or _condition_?" "_It_ rains; _It_ freezes; _It_ is a hard winter;"--_The rain_ rains; _The frost_ frosts or freezes; _The said_ (winter) is a hard winter. "_It_ is delightful to see brothers and sisters living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days." What is delightful? _To see brothers and sisters living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days. It, this thing_, is delightful. _It_, then, stands for all that part of the sentence expressed in italics; and the sentence will admit of the following construction; "To see brothers living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days, is delightful."

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OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, or, more properly, SPECIFYING ADJECTIVES, are a kind of adjectives which point out nouns by some distinct specification.

Pronouns and adjectives are totally distinct in their character. The former _stand for_ nouns, and never belong to them; the latter _belong to_ nouns, and never stand for them. Hence, such a thing as an _adjective-pronoun_ cannot exist. _Each, every, either, this, that, some, other_, and the residue, are pure adjectives.

Those specifying adjectives commonly called Adjective Pronouns, may be divided into three sorts; the _distributive_, the _demonstrative_, and the _indefinite_. They are all known by the _lists_.

I. The _distributive adjectives_ are those that denote the persons or things that make up a number, each taken separately and singly. _List: each, every, either_, and sometimes _neither_; as, "_Each_ of his brothers is in a favorable situation;" "_Every_ man must account for himself;" "_Neither_ of them is industrious."

These distributives are words which are introduced into language in its refined state, in order to express the nicest shades and colors of thought. "_Man_ must account for himself;" "_Mankind_ must account for themselves;" "_All men_ must account for themselves;" "_All men, women,_ and _children,_ must account for themselves;" "_Every man_ must account for himself." Each of these assertions conveys the same fact or truth. But the last, instead of presenting the whole human family for the mind to contemplate in a mass, by the peculiar force of _every, distributes_ them, and presents each separately and singly; and whatever is affirmed of one individual, the mind instantaneously transfers to the whole human race.

_Each_ relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either of the two, or every one of any number taken separately.

_Every_ relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of them all taken separately.

_Either_ relates to _two_ persons or things taken separately, and signifies the one or the other. "_Either_ of the _three_," is an improper expression. It should be, "any of the three."

_Neither_ imports _not either_; that is, not one nor the other; as, "_Neither_ of my friends was there." When an allusion is made to more than _two, none_ should be used instead of _neither_; as, "_None_ of my friends was there."

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II. The _demonstrative_ are those which precisely point out the subject to which they relate. _List: this_ and _that_, and their plurals, _these_ and _those_, and _former_ and _latter_; as, "_This_ is true charity; "_that_ is only its image."

There is but a slight shade of difference in the meaning and application of _the_ and _that_. When reference is made to a particular book, we say, "Take _the_ book;" but when we wish to be very pointed and precise, we say, "Take _that_ book;" or, if it be near by, "Take _this_ book." You perceive, then, that these demonstratives have all the force of the definite article, and a little more.

_This_ and _these_ refer to the nearest persons or things, _that_ and _those_ to the most distant; as, "_These_ goods are superior to those." _This_ and _these_ indicate the latter, or last mentioned; _that_ and _those_, the former, or first mentioned; as, "Both _wealth_ and _poverty_ are temptations; _that_ tends to excite pride, _this_, discontent."

"_Some_ place the bliss in action, _some_ in ease; _Those_ call it pleasure, and contentment, _these_."

_They, those_. As it is the office of the personal _they_ to represent a noun previously introduced to our notice, there appears to be a slight departure from analogy in the following application of it: "_They_ who seek after wisdom, are sure to find her: _They_ that sow in tears, sometimes reap in joy." This usage, however, is well established, and _they_, in such constructions, is generally employed in preference to _those_.

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III. The _indefinite_ are those which express their subjects in an indefinite or general manner. _List: some, other, any, one, all, such, both, same, another none_. Of these, _one_ and _other_ are declined like nouns. _Another_ is declined, but wants the plural.

The indefinite adjectives, like the indefinite article, leave the meaning unfixed, or, in some degree, vague. With a slight shade of difference in meaning, we say, Give me _a_ paper, _one_ paper, _any_ paper, _some_ paper, and so on. Though these words restrict the meaning of the noun, they do not fix it to a _particular_ object. We therefore call them indefinite.

These adjectives, or adjective pronouns, frequently belong to nouns understood, in which situation they should be parsed accordingly; as "You may take _either_; He is pleased with _this_ book, but dislikes _that_ (book;) _All_ (men) have sinned, but _some_ (men) have repented."

The words, _one, other_, and _none_, are used in both numbers; and, when they _stand for_ nouns, they are not adjectives, but indefinite _pronouns_; as, "The great _ones_ of the world have their failings;" "Some men increase in wealth, while _others_ decrease;" "_None_ escape."