Chapter 10

NOTE. _Like, Worth_. The adjective _like_ is a contraction of the participle _likened_, and generally has the preposition _unto_ understood after it. "She is _like_ [_unto_] her brother." "They are _unlike_ [_to_] him." "The kingdom of heaven is _like_ [_likened_ or made _like_] _unto_ a householder."

The noun _worth_ has altogether dropped its associated words. "The cloth is _worth_ ten dollars _a_ yard;" that is, The cloth is _of the_ worth _of_ ten dollars _by the_ yard, or _for a, one_, or _every yard_.

Some eminent philologists do not admit the propriety of supplying an ellipsis after _like, worth, ere, but, except_, and _than_, but consider them prepositions. See Anomalies, in the latter part of this work.

REMARKS ON ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.

A critical analysis requires that the adjective when used without its noun, should be parsed as an adjective belonging to its noun understood; as, "The _virtuous_ [_persons_] and the _sincere_ [_persons_] are always respected;" "Providence rewards the _good_ [_people,_] and punishes the _bad_ [_people._]"

"The _evil_ [_deed_ or _deeds_] that men do, lives after them; "The _good_ [_deed_ or _deeds_] is oft-interred with their bones."

But sometimes the adjective, by its _manner_ of meaning, becomes a noun, and has another adjective joined to it; as, "the chief _good_;" "The vast _immense_ [_immensity_] of space."

Various nouns placed before other nouns, assume the character of adjectives, according to their _manner_ of meaning; as, "_Sea_ fish, _iron_ mortar, _wine_ vessel, _gold_ watch, _corn_ field, _meadow_ ground, _mountain_ height."

The principle which recognises _custom_ as the standard of grammatical accuracy, might rest for its support on the usage of only _six_ words, and defy all the subtleties of innovating skeptics to gainsay it. If the genius and analogy of our language were the standard, it would be correct to observe this analogy, and say, "Good, good_er_, good_est_; bad, bad_der_, bad_dest_; little, littl_er_, littl_est_; much, much_er_; much_est_." "By _this mean_;" "What _are_ the _news_." But such a criterion betrays only the weakness of those who attempt to establish it. Regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire, the good sense of the people will cause them, in this instance, as well as in a thousand others, to yield to _custom_, and say, "Good, _better, best_; bad, _worse, worst_; little, _less, least_; much, _more, most_;" "By _this means_;" "What _is_ the _news_?"

With regard to the using of adjectives and other qualifying words, care must be taken, or your language will frequently amount to absurdity or nonsense. Let the following general remark, which is better than a dozen rules, put you on your guard. Whenever you utter a sentence, or put your pen on paper to write, weigh well in your mind _the meaning of the words_ which you are about to employ. See that they convey precisely the ideas which you wish to express by them, and thus you will avoid innumerable errors. In speaking of a man, we may say, with propriety, he is _very_ wicked, or _exceedingly_ lavish, because the terms _wicked_ and _lavish_ are adjectives that admit of comparison; but, if we take the words in their literal acceptation, there is a solecism in calling a man _very_ honest, or _exceedingly_ just, for the words _honest_ and _just_, literally admit of no comparison. In point of fact, a man is _honest_ or _dishonest, just_ or _unjust_: there can be no medium or excess in this respect. _Very_ correct, _very_ incorrect, _very_ right, _very_ wrong, are common expressions; but they are not _literally_ proper. What is not _correct_, must be _incorrect_; and that which is not _incorrect_, must be _correct_: what is not _right_, must be _wrong_; and that which is not _wrong_, must be _right_. To avoid that circumlocution which must otherwise take place, our best speakers and writers, however, frequently compare adjectives which do not literally admit of comparison: "The _most established_ practice;" "The _most uncertain_ method;" "Irving, as a writer, _is far more accurate_ than Addison;" "The metaphysical investigations of our philosophical grammars, are _still more incomprehensible_ to the learner." Comparisons like these, should generally be avoided; but sometimes they are so convenient in practice, as to render them admissible. Such expressions can be reconciled with the principles of grammar, only by considering them as figurative.

Comparative members of sentences, should be set in _direct opposition_ to each other; as, "Pope was _rich_, but Goldsmith was _poor_." The following sentences are inaccurate: "Solomon was _wiser_ than Cicero was _eloquent_." "The principles of the reformation were _deeper_ in the prince's mind than to be _easily eradicated_." This latter sentence contains _no comparison_ at all; neither does it literally convey _any meaning_. Again, if the Psalmist had said, "I am the wisest of my teachers," he would have spoken absurdly, because the phrase would imply, that he was one of his teachers. But in saying, "I am wiser _than_ my teachers," he does not consider himself one of them, but places himself in contradistinction to them.

Before you proceed any farther, you may answer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

What is the distinction between a noun and an adjective?--By what sign may an adjective be known?--Are participles ever used as adjectives?--Does gender, person, number, or case, belong to adjectives?--How are they varied?--Name the three degrees of comparison.--What effect have _less_ and _least_ in comparing adjectives?--Repeat the order of parsing an adjective.--What rule applies in parsing an adjective?--What rule in parsing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveying _unity_ of idea?--What Note should be applied in parsing an adjective which belongs to a pronoun?--What Note in parsing _numeral_ adjectives?

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. Repeat all the various ways of forming the degrees of comparison, mentioned in the first five NOTES.--Compare these adjectives; _ripe, frugal, mischievous, happy, able, good, little, much_ or _many, near, late, old_.--Name some adjectives that are always in the superlative, and never compared.--Are compound adjectives compared?--What is said of the termination _ish_, and of the adverb _very?_--When does an adjective become a noun?--What character does a noun assume when placed before another noun?--How can you prove that _custom_ is the standard of grammatical accuracy?

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PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

ADNOUNS.

_Adnoun_ or _Adjective_, comes from the Latin, _ad_ and _jicio_, to _add to_.

Adnouns are a class of words added to nouns to vary their comprehension, or to determine their extension. Those which effect the former object, are called _adjectives_, or _attributes;_ and those which effect the latter, _restrictives_. It is not, in all cases, easy to determine to which of these classes an adnoun should be referred. Words which express simply the _qualities_ of nouns, are adjectives; and such as denote their _situation_ or _number_, are restrictives.

Adjectives were originally nouns or verbs.

Some consider the adjective, in its present application, _exactly_ equivalent to a noun connected to another noun by means of juxtaposition, of a preposition, or of a corresponding flexion. "A _golden_ cup," say they, "is the same as a _gold_ cup, or a cup _of gold_." But this principle appears to be exceptionable. "A cup _of gold_," may mean either a cup-_full_ of gold, or a cup _made_ of gold. "An _oaken_ cask," signifies an _oak_ cask, or a cask _of oak_; i.e. a cask _made_ of oak; but a _beer_ cask, and a cask _of beer_, are two different things. A _virtuous_ son; a son _of virtue_.

The distinguishing characteristic of the adjective, appears to consist in its both _naming_ a quality, and _attributing_ that quality to some object.

The terminations _en, ed_, and _ig_ (our modern _y_,) signifying _give, add, join_, denote that the names of qualities to which they are postfixed, are to be attributed to other nouns possessing such qualities: wood-_en_, wood-_y_. See page 37.

_Left_ is the past participle of the verb _leave_. Horne Tooke defines _right_ to be that which is _ordered_ or _directed_. The _right_ hand is that which your parents and custom direct you to use in preference to the other. And when you employ that in preference, the other is the _leaved, leav'd_, or _left_ hand; i.e. the one _leaved_ or _left_. "The one shall be taken, and the other _(leaved) left_."

_Own_. Formerly a man's _own_ was what he _worked for, own_ being a past participle of a verb signifying to _work_.

_Restrictive_. Some restrictives, in modern times, are applied only to singular nouns; such as _a_ or _an, another, one, this, that, each, every, either_. Others, only to plural nouns; as, _these, those, two, three, few, several, all_. But most restrictives, like adjectives, are applied to both singular and plural nouns: _first, second, last, the, former, latter, any, such, same, some, which, what_.

_Numerals_. All numeration was, doubtless, originally performed by the fingers; for the number of the fingers is still the utmost extent of its signification. _Ten_ is the past participle of _tynan_, to close, to shut in. The hands _tyned, tened_, closed, or shut in, signified _ten_; for there numeration _closed_. To denote a number greater than ten, we must begin again, _ten_ and _one, ten_ and _two_, &c.

_Twain, twa-in, twa-ain, twa-ane_, is a compound of _two (twa, twae, twee, twi, two_ or _dwo_ or _duo)_ and _one (ane, ain, an.)_ It signifies _two_ units _joined, united, aned,_ or _oned. Twenty (twa-ane-ten)_ signifies _two tens aned, oned_, or _united_. Things _separated_ into parcels of twenty each, are called _scores. Score_ is the past participle of _shear_, to _separate_.

_The Ordinals_ are formed like abstract nouns in _eth. Fifth, sixth_, or _tenth_ is the number which _fiv-eth, six-eth, ten-eth_, or mak-_eth_ up the number _five, six_, or _ten_.

Philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to that in which they were _originally_ employed, and suppose that all the complicated, yet often definable, associations which the gradual progress of language and intellect has connected with words, are to be reduced to _the standard of our forefathers_; appear not to have sufficiently attended to the _changes_ which this principle of association actually produces. As language is transmitted from generation to generation, many words become the representatives of ideas with which they were not originally associated; and thus they undergo a change, not only in the _mode_ of their application, but also in their meaning. Words being the signs of things, their meaning must necessarily change as much, _at least_, as things themselves change; but this variation in their import more frequently depends on accidental circumstances. Among the ideas connected with a word that which was once of primary, becomes only of secondary importance; and sometimes, by degrees, it loses altogether its connexion with the word, giving place to others with which, from some accidental causes, it has been associated.

Two or three instances will illustrate the truth of these remarks. In an ancient English version of the New Testament, we find the following language: "I, Paul, a _rascal_ of Jesus Christ, unto you Gentiles," &c. But who, in the present acceptation of the word, would dare to call "the great apostle of the Gentiles" a _rascal? Rascal_ formerly meant a _servant:_ one devoted to the interest of another; but now it is nearly synonymous with _villain. Villain_ once had none of the odium which is now associated with the term; but it signified one who, under the feudal system, rented or held lands of another. Thus, Henry the VIII. says to a vassal or tenant, "As you are an accomplished _villain_, I order that you receive £700 out of the public treasury." The word _villain_, then, has given up its original idea, and become the representative of a new one, the word _tenant_ having supplanted it. To prove that the meaning of words _changes_, a thousand examples could be adduced; but with the intelligent reader, proof is unnecessary.

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QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

How are adnouns divided?--What constitutes the true character of an adjective?--What are the signification and denotement of the terminations, _en, ed_, and _ig?_--What do _left_ and _own_ signify?--Name the three ways in which restrictives are applied.--How was numeration originally performed?--What is said of _twain, twenty, score_, and the ordinal numbers?--What is said of the changes produced in the meaning of words, by the principle of association?

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. NOTE 9, under RULE 18. Double _Comparatives_ and _Superlatives_ should be avoided; such as, _worser, lesser, more_ deeper, _more_ wickeder, &c.: _chiefest, supremest, perfectest, rightest_; or _more_ perfect, _most_ perfect, _most_ supreme, &c.

Virtue confers the most supreme dignity on man, and it should be his chiefest desire.

He made the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night.

The phrases "most supreme," and "chiefest," in the first sentence, are incorrect, because _supreme_ and _chief_ are in the superlative degree without having the superlative form superadded, which addition makes them double superlatives. They should be written, "confers supreme dignity," and, "his chief desire."

We can say, one thing is _less_ than another, or _smaller_ than another, because the adjectives _less_ and _smaller_ are in the comparative degree; but the phrase "_lesser_ light," in the second sentence, is inaccurate. _Lesser_ is a double comparative, which, according to the preceding Note, should be avoided. _Lesser_ is as incorrect as _badder, gooder, worser_. "The _smaller_ light," would be less exceptionable. You can correct the following without my assistance. Correct them _four_ times over.

The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than those of imagination or sense. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the lesser weight it carries. The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. The Most Highest hath created us for his glory, He was admitted to the chiefest offices. The first witness gave a strong proof of the fact; the next more stronger still; but the last witness, the most stronger of all. He gave the fullest and the most sincere proof of the truer friendship.

LECTURE V.

OF PARTICIPLES.

A PARTICIPLE is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective.

Verbs have three participles, the present or imperfect, the perfect, and the compound.

The _present_ or _imperfect_ participle denotes action or being continued, but not perfected. It always ends in _ing_; as, _ruling, being_: "I am _writing_ a letter."

The _perfect_ participle denotes action or being perfected or finished. When derived from a regular verb, it ends in _ed_, and corresponds with the imperfect tense; as, _ruled, smiled:_ "The letter is _written_."

The _compound_ participle implies action or being completed before the time referred to. It is formed by placing _having_ before the perfect participle; as, _having ruled, having been ruled: "Having written_ the letter, he mailed it."

The term _Participle_ comes from the Latin word _participio_, which signifies to _partake_: and this name is given to this part of speech, because it _partakes_ of the nature of the verb and of the adjective.

By many writers, the participle is classed with the verb, and treated as a part of it; but, as it has no nominative, partakes of the nature of an adjective, requires many syntactical rules which apply not to the verb, and, in some other respects, has properties peculiar to itself, it is believed that its character is sufficiently distinct from the verb, to entitle it to the rank of a separate part of speech. It is, in fact, the connecting link between, not only the adjective and the verb, but also the noun and the verb.

All participles are compound in their meaning and office. Like verbs, they express action and being, and denote time; and, like adjectives, they describe the nouns of which they denote the action or being. In the sentences, The boatman is _crossing_ the river; I see a man _laboring_ in the field; Charles is _standing_; you perceive that the participles _crossing_ and _laboring_ express the actions of the boatman and the man, and _standing_ the state of being of Charles. In these respects, then, they partake of the nature of verbs. You also notice, that they _describe_ the several nouns associated with them, like describing adjectives; and that, in this respect, they participate the properties of adjectives. And, furthermore, you observe they denote actions which are still going on; that is, _incomplete_ or _unfinished_ actions; for which reason we call them _imperfect_ participles.

Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. When the imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before nouns, they become defining or describing adjectives, and are denominated _participial adjectives_; as, A _loving_ companion; The _rippling_ stream; _Roaring_ winds; A _wilted_ leaf; An _accomplished_ scholar. Here the words _loving, rippling, roaring, wilted_, and _accomplished_, describe or define the nouns with which they are associated. And where the participles are placed after their nouns, they have, also, this descriptive quality. If I say, I see the moon _rising_; The horse is _running_ a race; The dog is _beaten_; I describe the several objects, as a _rising_ moon, a _running_ horse, and a _beaten_ dog, as well as when I place these participles before the nouns. The same word is a participle or a participial adjective, according to its manner of meaning. The preceding illustration, however, shows that this distinction is founded on a very slight shade of difference in the meaning of the two. The following examples will enable you to distinguish the one from the other.

_Participles. Participial adjectives_.

See the sun _setting_. See the _setting_ sun. See the moon _rising_. See the _rising_ moon. The wind is _roaring_. Hear the _roaring_ wind. The twig is _broken_. The _broken_ twig fell. The vessel _anchored_ in the The _anchored_ vessel spreads bay, lost her mast. her sail.

The _present_ or _imperfect_ participle is known by its ending in _ing_; as, float_ing_, rid_ing_, hear_ing_, see_ing_. These are derived from the verbs, _float, ride, hear_, and _see_. But some words ending in _ing_ are not participles; such as _evening, morning, hireling, sapling, uninteresting, unbelieving, uncontrolling_. When you parse a word ending in _ing_, you should always consider whether it comes from a verb or not. There is such a verb as _interest_, hence you know that the word _interesting_ is a participle; but there is no such verb as _un_interest, consequently, _un_interesting can _not_ be a participle: but it is an adjective; as, an _uninteresting_ story. You will be able very easily to distinguish the participle from the other parts of speech, when you shall have acquired a more extensive knowledge of the verb.

Speak the participles from each of these verbs, learn, walk, shun, smile, sail, conquer, manage, reduce, relate, discover, overrate, disengage. Thus, Pres. _learning_, Perf. _learned_, Comp. _having learned_. Pres. _walking_, Perf. _walked_, Compound, _having walked_, and so on.

You may now commit the _order_ of parsing a participle, and then proceed with me.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

The _order of parsing_ a PARTICIPLE, is--a participle, and why?--from what verb is it derived?--speak the three--present, perfect, or compound, and why?--to what does it refer or belong?--RULE.

"I saw a vessel _sailing"_

_Sailing_ is a participle, a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective--it comes from the verb to sail--pres. sailing, perf. sailed, comp. having sailed--it is a present or imperfect participle, because it denotes the continuance of an unfinished action--and refers to the noun "vessel" for its subject, according to

RULE 27. _The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting the subject or actor_.

"Not a breath disturbs the _sleeping_ billow."

_Sleeping_ is a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to express its quality--it cannot, with propriety, be compared--- it belongs to the noun "billow," agreeably to

RULE 18. _Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or understood_.

You will please to parse these two words several times over, and, by a little reflection, you will perfectly understand the 27th RULE. Recollect, the participle never varies its termination to _agree_ with a noun or pronoun, for, as it has no _nominative_, it has no agreement; but it simply _refers to_ an actor. Examples: I see a _vessel_ sailing; or, I see three _vessels_ sailing. You perceive that the participle _sailing_ refers to a singular noun in the first example, and to a plural noun in the second; and yet the participle is in the same form in both examples. The noun _vessel_ is in the objective case, and governed by the transitive verb _see_. But when a verb follows a noun, the ending of the verb generally varies in order to agree with the noun which is its nominative; as, the vessel _sails;_ the vessels _sail_.

In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule that relates to the participle. In the sentence, "The man is _beating_ his horse," the noun _horse_ is in the objective case, because it is the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive participle "beating," and it is governed by the participle beating, according to

RULE 26. _Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived_.

The principle upon which this rule is founded, is quite apparent. As a participle derived from a transitive verb, expresses the same kind of action as its verb, it necessarily follows, that the participle must govern the same case as the verb from which it is derived.

When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, you may proceed and parse the following exercises, containing five parts of speech. If, in analyzing these examples, you find any words which you cannot parse correctly and _systematically_ by referring to your Compend for definitions and rules, you will please to turn back and read over again the whole _five_ lectures. You must exercise a little patience; and, for your encouragement, permit me to remind you, that when you shall have acquired a thorough knowledge of these five parts of speech, only _five_ more will remain for you to learn. Be ambitious to excel. Be thorough in your investigations. Give your reasoning powers free scope. By studying these lectures with attention, you will acquire more grammatical knowledge in _three_ months, than is commonly obtained in _two_ years.

In the following examples, the words _purling, crusted, slumbering_, and _twinkling_, are participial adjectives. _There_ and _its_ you may omit.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.