Part 5

The _neuter gender_ denotes things without sex; as, a _hat_, a _stick_.

_Neuter_ means _neither:_ therefore neuter gender signifies neither gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, neuter gender means _no gender_. Strictly speaking, then, as there are but two sexes, nouns have but _two_ genders; but for the sake of practical convenience, we apply to them three genders, by calling that a gender which is _no_ gender. The English and the pure Persian, appear to be the only languages which observe, in the distinction of sex, the natural division of nouns.--The genders of nouns are so easily known, that a farther explanation of them is unnecessary, except what is given in the following

NOTES.

1. The same noun is sometimes masculine _and_ feminine, and sometimes masculine _or_ feminine. The noun _parents_ is of the masculine _and_ feminine gender. The nouns _parent, associate, neighbor, servant, friend, child, bird, fish, &c._ if doubtful, are of the masculine _or_ feminine gender.

2. Some nouns naturally neuter, are, when used figuratively, or _personified_, converted into the masculine or feminine gender. Those nouns are generally rendered masculine, which are conspicuous for the attributes of imparting or communicating, and which are by nature strong and efficacious; as, the _sun, time, death, sleep, winter, &c._ Those, again, are generally feminine, which are conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bringing forth, or which are very beautiful, mild, or amiable; as, the _earth, moon, church, boat, vessel, city, country, nature, ship, soul, fortune, virtue, hope, spring, peace, &c._ This principle for designating the sex of a personified object, which is quite rational, is generally adhered to in the English language; but, in some instances, the poet applies the sex according to his fancy.

The masculine and feminine genders are distinguished in three ways:

1. _By different words_; as,

_Masculine_. _Feminine_. Bachelor maid Boar sow Boy girl Brother sister Buck doe Bull cow Cock hen Dog bitch Drake duck Earl countess Father mother Friar nun Gander goose Hart roe Horse mare Husband wife King queen Lad lass Lord lady Man woman Master mistress Milter spawner Nephew niece Ram ewe Singer songstress or singer Sloven slut Son daughter Stag hind Uncle aunt Wizard witch Sir madam

2. _By a difference in termination_; as, Abbot abbess Actor actress Administrator administratrix Adulterer adulteress Ambassador ambassadress Arbiter arbitress Auditor auditress Author authoress Baron baroness Benefactor benefactress Bridegroom bride Canon canoness Caterer cateress Chanter chantress Conductor conductress Count countess Czar czarina Deacon deaconess Detracter detractress Director directress Duke dutchess Elector electress Embassador embassadress Emperor emperess Enchanter enchantress Executor executrix Fornicator fornicatress God goddess Governor governess Heir heiress Hero heroine Host hostess Hunter huntress Inheritor inheritress or inheritrix Instructor instructress Jew Jewess Lion lioness Marquis marchioness Mayor mayoress Patron patroness Peer peeress Poet poetess Priest priestess Prince princess Prior prioress Prophet prophetess Proprietor proprietress Protector protectress Shepherd shepherdess Songster songstress Sorcerer sorceress Suiter suitress Sultan sultaness or sultana Tiger tigress Testator testatrix Traitor traitress Tutor tutoress Tyrant tyranness Victor victress Viscount viscountess Votary votaress Widower widow

3. _By prefixing another word_; as,

A cock-sparrow A hen-sparrow A man-servant A maid-servant A he-goat A she-goat A he-bear A she-bear A male-child A female-child Male-descendants Female-descendants

PERSON.

PERSON is a property of the noun and pronoun which varies the verb.

The _first person_ denotes the speaker.

The _second person_ denotes the person or thing spoken to; as, "Listen, _earth!"_

The _third person_ denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, "The _earth_ thirsts."

Nouns have but _two_ persons, the second and third. When a man speaks, the _pronoun I_ or _we_ is always used; therefore nouns can never be in the _first_ person. In examples like the following, some philologists suppose the noun to be in the _first_ person:--"This may certify, that I, _Jonas Taylor_, do hereby give and grant," &c. But it is evident, that the speaker or writer, in introducing his own name, speaks _of_ himself; consequently the noun is of the _third person_.

If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober thought is requisite; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will be removed. If I say, my _son_, have you seen the young man? you perceive that the noun _son_ is of the _second_ person, because I address myself _to_ him; that is, he is spoken _to;_ but the noun _man_ is of the _third_ person, because he is spoken _of_. Again, if I say, young _man_, have you seen my son? _man_ is of the _second_ person, and _son_ is of the _third_.

"Hast thou left thy blue course in the heavens, golden-haired _sun_ of the sky?"

"_Father_, may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of friendship between us, that a child may find it, when the sun is asleep in his wig-wam behind the western waters."

"Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies! Sink down, ye _mountains_, and, ye _valleys_, rise!" "Eternal _Hope_, thy glittering wings explore Earth's loneliest bounds, and ocean's wildest shore."

In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, valleys, and hope, are of the _second_ person, and, as you will hereafter learn, in the nominative case independent. Course, heavens, sky, Spirit, chain, friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, waters, earth, skies, wings, earth, bounds, ocean, and shore, are all of the _third_ person.

NUMBER.

Number is the distinction of objects, as one or more. Nouns are of two numbers, the singular and the plural.

The _singular_ number implies but one; as, a _book_.

The _plural_ number implies more than one; as, _books_.

NOTES.

1. Some nouns are used only in the singular form; as, hemp, flax, barley, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, honesty, meekness, compassion, &c.; others only in the plural form; as, bellows, scissors, ashes, riches, snuffers, tongs, thanks, wages, embers, ides, pains, vespers, &c.

2. Some words are the same in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine; and, also, hiatus, apparatus, series, species.

3. The plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding _s_ to the singular; as, dove, doves; face, faces; but sometimes we add _es_ in the plural; as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; cargo, cargoes.

4. Nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_, are rendered plural by a change of that termination into _ves_; as, half, halves; wife, wives: except grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form their plurals by the addition of _s_. Those ending in _ff_, have the regular plural; as, ruff, ruffs; except staff, staves.

5. Nouns ending in _y_ in the singular, with no other vowel in the same syllable, change it into _ies_ in the plural; as, beauty, beauties; fly, flies. But the _y_ is not changed, where there is another vowel in the syllable; as, key, keys; delay, delays; attorney, attorneys; valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys.

6. _Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, optics, ethics, pneumatics, hydraulics_, &c. are construed either as singular or plural nouns.

7. The word _news_ is always singular. The nouns _means, alms_, and _amends_, though plural in form, may be either singular or plural in signification. Antipodes, credenda, literati, and minutiæ are always plural. _Bandit_ is now used as the singular of Banditti.

8. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any general rule; thus, man, men; woman, women; child, children; ox, oxen; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; foot, feet; mouse, mice; louse, lice; brother, brothers or brethren; cow, cows or kine; penny, pence, or pennies when the coin is meant; die, dice _for play,_ dies _for coining;_ pea and fish, pease and fish when the species is meant, but _peas_ and _fishes_ when we refer to the number; as, six _peas_, ten _fishes_.

9. The following compounds form their plurals thus: handful, handfuls; cupful, cupfuls; spoonful, spoonfuls:--brother-in-law, brothers-in-law; court-martial, courts-martial.

The following words form their plurals according to the rules of the languages from which they are adopted.

_Singular_ _Plural._ Antithesis antitheses Apex apices Appendix appendixes _or_ appendices Arcanum arcana Automaton automata Axis axes Basis bases Beau beaux _or_ beaus Calx calces _or_ calxes Cherub cherubim _or_ cherubs Crisis crises Criterion criteria Datum data Diæresis diæreses Desideratum desiderata Effluvium effluvia Ellipsis ellipses Emphasis emphases Encomium encomia _or_ encomiums Erratum errata Genius genii [2] Genus genera Hypothesis hypotheses Ignis fatuus, ignes fatui Index indices _or_ indexes [3] Lamina laminae Magus magi Memorandum memoranda _or_ memorandums Metamorphosis metamorphoses Parenthesis parentheses Phenomenon phenomena Radius radii _or_ radiuses Stamen stamina Seraph seraphim _or_ seraphs Stimulus stimuli Stratum strata Thesis theses Vertex vertices Vortex vortices _or_ vortexes

[2] Genii, imaginary spirits: geniuses, persons of great mental abilities.

[3] Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant: indices, when referring to algebraic quantities.

CASE.

Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, means the different state, situation, or position they have in relation to other words. Nouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

I deem the essential qualities of _case_, in English, to consist, not in the _changes_ or _inflections_ produced on nouns and pronouns, but in the various offices which they perform in a sentence, by assuming different positions in regard to other words. In accordance with this definition, these cases can be easily explained on reasoning principles, founded in the nature of things.

Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to comprehend what is meant by case. Its real character is extremely simple; but in the different grammars it assumes as many meanings as Proteus had shapes. The most that has been written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What, then, is meant by _case_? In speaking of a horse, for instance, we say he is in a good _case_, when he is fat, and in a bad _case_, when he is lean, and needs more oats; and in this sense we apply the term _case_ to denote the _state_ or _condition_ of the horse. So, when we place a noun before a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the _nominative case_; but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition, we say it has another _case_; that is, it assumes a new _position_ or _situation_ in the sentence: and this we call the _objective_ case. Thus, the _boy_ gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as _acting_. He is, therefore, in the _nominative_ case. But when I say, Jane struck the _boy_, I do not represent the boy as the _actor_, but as the _object_ of the action. He is, therefore, in a new _case_ or _condition_. And when I say, This is the _boy's_ hat, I do not speak of the boy either as _acting_ or as _acted upon_; but as possessing something: for which reason he is in the _possessive_ case. Hence, it is clear, that nouns have three cases or positions.

As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are inseparably connected with the verb, it is impossible for you to understand them until you shall have acquired some knowledge of this part of speech. I will, therefore, now give you a partial description of the verb in connexion with the noun; which will enable me to illustrate the cases of the noun so clearly, that you may easily comprehend their nature.

In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold converse with each other, found it necessary, in the first place, to give _names_ to the various objects by which they were surrounded. Hence the origin of the first part of speech, which we denominate the _noun_. But merely to name the objects which they beheld or thought of, was not sufficient for their purpose. They perceived that these objects existed, moved, acted, or caused some action to be done. In looking at a man, for instance, they perceived that he lived, walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and so on. They perceived that plants grow, flowers bloom, and rivers flow. Hence the necessity of another part of speech, whose office it should be to express these existences and actions. This second class of words we call

VERBS.

A verb is a word which signifies to BE, to DO, or to SUFFER; as, I _am_; I _rule_; I _am ruled_.

Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and neuter. They are also divided into regular, irregular, and defective.

The term _verb_ is derived from the Latin word _verbum_, which signifies a _word_. This part of speech is called a _verb_ or _word_, because it is deemed the most important word in every sentence: and without a verb and nominative, either expressed or implied, no sentence can exist. The noun is the original and leading part of speech; the verb comes next in order, and is far more complex than the noun. These two are the most useful in the language, and form the basis of the science of grammar. The other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two, and, as you will hereafter learn, of minor importance.

For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and division of the verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be found as _convenient_ as any other. I adopt them, therefore, to be consistent with the principle, that, in arranging the materials of this treatise, I shall not alter or reject any established definition, rule, or principle of grammar, unless, in my humble judgment, some _practical advantage_ to the learner is thereby gained. The following, some consider a good definition.

A VERB is a word which _expresses affirmation_.

An _active verb_ expresses action; and

The _nominative case_ is the actor, or subject of the verb; as, _John writes_.

In this example, which is the _verb?_ You know it is the word _writes_, because this word signifies to _do;_ that is, it expresses _action_, therefore, according to the definition, it is an _active verb_. And you know, too, that the noun _John_ is the _actor_, therefore John is in the _nominative case_ to the verb writes. In the expressions, The man walks--The boy plays--Thunders roll--- Warriors fight--you perceive that the words _walks, plays, roll_, and _fight_, are _active verbs;_ and you cannot be at a loss to know, that the nouns _man, boy, thunders_, and _warriors_, are in the _nominative case._

As no _action_ can be produced without some agent or moving cause, it follows, that every active verb must have some _actor_ or _agent_. This _actor, doer_, or _producer of the action_, is the nominative. _Nominative_, from the Latin _nomino_, literally signifies to _name;_ but in the technical sense in which it is used in grammar, it means the noun or pronoun which is the _subject_ of affirmation. This subject or nominative may be _active, passive_, or _neuter_, as hereafter exemplified.

A _neuter verb_ expresses neither action nor passion, but _being_, or _a state of being_; as, _John sits_.

Now, in this example, _John_ is not represented as _an actor_, but, as the _subject_ of the verb _sits_, therefore John is in the _nominative case_ to the verb. And you know that the word _sits_ does not express _apparent action_, but a _condition of being;_ that is, it represents John in a particular _state of existence;_ therefore _sits_ is a _neuter verb_. In speaking of the neuter gender of nouns, I informed you, that _neuter_ means _neither;_ from which it follows, that neuter gender implies neither gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, by an easy transition of thought, you learn, that _neuter_, when applied to verbs, means neither of the other two classes; that is, a _neuter_ verb is one which is neither active nor passive. In these examples, The man stands--The lady lives--The child sleeps--The world exists--the words _stands, lives, sleeps_, and _exists_, are _neuter verbs;_ and the nouns, _man, lady, child_, and _world_, are all in the _nominative case_, because each is the _subject_ of a verb. Thus you perceive, that when a noun is in the nominative case to an _active_ verb, it is the _actor;_ and when it is nominative to a _neuter_ verb, it is _not_ an actor, but the _subject_ of the verb.

Some neuter verbs express _being in general;_ as, The man _is_; Kingdoms _exist_. Others express _being in some particular state_; as, The man _stands, sits, lies_, or _hangs_.

I will now give you two _signs_, which will enable you to distinguish the verb from other parts of speech, when you cannot tell it by its signification. Any word that will make sense with _to_ before it, is a verb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, to sing, to hear, to ponder, to live, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any word that will _conjugate_, is a verb. Thus, I run, thou runnest, he runs; I write, thou writest, he writes; I smile, &c. But the words, boy, lady, child, and world, will not make sense with _to_ prefixed--_to_ boy, _to_ lady, _to_ world, is nonsense. Neither will they con_jugate_--I lady, thou ladiest, &c. is worse than nonsense. Hence you perceive, that these words are _not_ verbs. There are some exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimes used as nouns. This will be explained by and by.

To verbs belong _number, person, mood_, and _tense_.

At present I shall speak only of the number and person of verbs; but hereafter I will give you a full explanation of all their properties. And permit me to inform you, that I shall not lead you into the _intricacies_ of the science, until, by gradual and easy progressions, you are enabled to comprehend the principles involved in them. Only such principles will be elucidated, as you are prepared to understand at the time they are unfolded before you. You must not be too anxious to get along _rapidly_; but endeavor to become thoroughly acquainted with one principle, before you undertake another. This lecture will qualify you for the next.

NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS. You recollect, that the nominative is the _actor_ or _subject_, and the active verb is the _action_ performed by the nominative. By this you perceive, that a very intimate connexion or relation exists between the nominative case and the verb. If, therefore, only _one_ creature or thing acts, only _one_ action, at the same instant, can be done; as, The _girl writes_. The nominative _girl_ is here of the singular number, because it signifies but one person; and the verb _writes_ denotes but one action, which the girl performs; therefore the verb _writes_ is of the _singular_ number, agreeing with its nominative _girl_. When the nominative case is _plural_, the verb must be _plural_; as, _girls write_. Take notice, the _singular_ verb ends in _s_, but the noun is generally _plural_ when it ends in _s_; thus, The girl _writes_--the _girls_ write.

_Person_, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs _not_ to _verbs_, but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb must agree with its nominative in _person_, as well as in number; that is, the verb must be spelled and spoken in such a manner as to correspond with the _first, second_, or _third_ person of the noun or pronoun which is its nominative.

I will now show you how the verb is varied in order to agree with its nominative in number and person. I, Thou, He, She, It; We, Ye or You, They, are _personal pronouns_. _I_ is of the _first_ person, and _singular_ number; _Thou_ is _second_ person, _sing._; _He, She_, or _It_, is _third_ per. _sing._; _We_ is _first_ per. _plural_; _Ye_ or _You_ is _second_ per. _plural_; _They_ is _third_ per. _plural_. These pronouns are the representatives of nouns, and perform the same office that the nouns would for which they stand. When placed before the verb, they are, therefore, the _nominatives_ to the verb.

Notice particularly, the different variations or endings of the verb, as it is thus conjugated in the INDICATIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE.

_Singular_. _Plural_.

1. _Per_. I walk, 1. _Per_. We Walk, 2. _Per_. Thou walk_est_, 2. _Per_. Ye _or_ you walk, 3. _Per_. He walk_s_, _or_ 3. _Per_. They walk, or the boy walk_s_, the boys walk. _or_ walk_eth_.

This display of the verb shows you, that whenever it ends in _est_, it is of the _second_ person _singular_; but when the verb ends in _s_, or _eth_, it is of the _third_ person singular. _Walkest, ridest, standest_, are of the second person singular; and _walks_ or _walketh, rides_ or _rideth, stands_ or _standeth_, are of the third person singular.