Part 3

Doubtless you have heard some persons assert, that they could detect and correct any error in language by the ear, and speak and write accurately without a knowledge of grammar. Now your own observation will soon convince you, that this assertion is incorrect. A man of refined taste, may, by perusing good authors, and conversing with the learned, acquire that knowledge of language which will enable him to avoid those glaring errors that offend the ear; but there are other errors equally gross, which have not a harsh sound, and, consequently, which cannot be detected without a knowledge of the rules that are violated. Believe me, therefore, when I say, that without the knowledge and application of grammar rules, it is impossible for any one to think, speak, read, or write with accuracy. From a want of such knowledge, many often express their ideas in a manner so improper and obscure as to render it impossible for any one to _understand_ them: their language frequently amounts, not only to _bad_ sense, but _non_-sense. In other instances several different meanings may be affixed to the words they employ; and what is still worse, is, that not unfrequently their sentences are so constructed, as to convey a meaning quite the reverse of that which they intended. Nothing of a secular nature can be more worthy of your attention, then, than the acquisition of grammatical knowledge.

The path which leads to grammatical excellence, is not all the way smooth and flowery, but in it you will find some thorns interspersed, and some obstacles to be surmounted; or, in simple language, you will find, in the pursuit of this science, many intricacies which it is rather difficult for the juvenile mind completely to unravel. I shall, therefore, as I proceed, address you in plain language, and endeavor to illustrate every principle in a manner so clear and simple, that you will be able, _if you exercise your mind,_ to understand its nature, and apply it to practice as you go along; for I would rather give you one useful idea, than fifty high-sounding words, the meaning of which you would probably be unable to comprehend.

Should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of a word, or the sense of a sentence, you must not be discouraged, but persevere, either by studying my explanations, or by asking some person competent to inform you, till you obtain a clear conception of it, and till all doubts are removed. By carefully examining, and frequently reviewing, the following lectures, you will soon be able to discern the grammatical construction of our language, and fix in your mind the principles by which it is governed. Nothing delights youth so much, as a clear and distinct knowledge of any branch of science which they are pursuing; and, on the other hand, I know they are apt to be discouraged with any branch of learning which requires much time and attention to be understood. It is the evidence of a weak mind, however, to be discouraged by the obstacles with which the young learner must expect to meet; and the best means that you can adopt, in order to enable you to overcome the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of your studies, is to cultivate the habit of _thinking methodically and soundly_ on all subjects of importance which may engage your attention. Nothing will be more effectual in enabling you to think, as well as to speak and write, correctly, than the study of English grammar, according to the method of pursuing it as prescribed in the following pages. This system is designed, and, I trust, well calculated, to expand and strengthen the intellectual faculties, in as much as it involves a process by which the mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammar communicated in an interesting and familiar manner.

You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of light and knowledge;--an age in which science and the arts are marching onward with gigantic strides. You live, too, in a land of liberty;--a land on which the smiles of Heaven beam with uncommon refulgence. The trump of the warrior and the clangor of arms no longer echo on our mountains, or in our valleys; "the garments dyed in blood have passed away;" the mighty struggle for independence is over; and you live to enjoy the rich boon of freedom and prosperity which was purchased with the blood of our fathers. These considerations forbid that you should ever be so unmindful of your duty to your country, to your Creator, to yourself, and to succeeding generations, as to be content to grovel in ignorance. Remember that "knowledge is power;" that an enlightened and a virtuous people can never be enslaved; and that, on the intelligence of our youth, rest the future liberty, the prosperity, the happiness, the grandeur, and the glory of our beloved country. Go on then, with a laudable ambition, and an unyielding perseverance, in the path which leads to honor and renown. Press forward. Go, and gather laurels on the hill of science; linger among her unfading beauties; "drink deep" of her crystal fountain; and then join in "the march of fame." Become learned and virtuous, and you will be great. Love God and serve him, and you will be happy.

LANGUAGE.

Language, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs by which men and brutes communicate to each other their thoughts, affections, and desires.

Language may be divided, 1. into natural and artificial; 2. into spoken and written.

NATURAL LANGUAGE, consists in the use of those natural signs which different animals employ in communicating their feelings one to another. The meaning of these signs all perfectly understand by the principles of their nature. This language is common both to man and brute. The elements of natural language in man, may be reduced to three kinds; modulations of the voice, gestures, and features. By means of these, two savages who have no common, artificial language, can communicate their thoughts in a manner quite intelligible: they can ask and refuse, affirm and deny, threaten and supplicate; they can traffick, enter into contracts, and plight their faith. The language of brutes consists in the use of those _inarticulate_ sounds by which they express their thoughts and affections. Thus, the chirping of a bird, the bleating of a lamb, the neighing of a horse, and the growling, whining, and barking of a dog, are the language of those animals, respectively.

ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE consists in the use of words, by means of which mankind are enabled to communicate their thoughts to one another.--In order to assist you in comprehending what is meant by the term _word,_ I will endeavor to illustrate the meaning of the term.

_Idea_. The _notices_ which we gain by sensation and perception, and which are treasured up in the mind to be the materials of thinking and knowledge, are denominated ideas. For example, when you place your hand upon a piece of ice, a sensation is excited which we call _coldness_. That faculty which notices this sensation or change produced in the mind, is called _perception;_ and the abstract notice itself, or notion you form of this sensation, is denominated an _idea_. This being premised, we will now proceed to the consideration of words.

_Words_ are _articulate_ sounds, used by common consent, not as natural, but as artificial, signs of our ideas. Words have no meaning in themselves. They are merely the artificial representatives of those ideas affixed to them by compact or agreement among those who use them. In English, for instance, to a particular kind of metal we assign the name _gold;_ not because there is, in that sound, any peculiar aptness which suggests the idea we wish to convey, but the application of that sound to the idea signified, is an act altogether arbitrary. Were there any natural connexion between the sound and the thing signified, the word _gold_ would convey the same idea to the people of other countries as it does to ourselves. But such is not the fact. Other nations make use of different sounds to signify the same thing. Thus, _aurum_ denotes the same idea in Latin, and _or_ in French. Hence it follows, that it is by custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to particular sounds.

SPOKEN LANGUAGE or speech is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the human voice.

_The voice_ is formed by air which, after it passes through the glottis, (a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe,) is modulated by the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and nostrils.

WRITTEN LANGUAGE. The elements of written language consist of letters or characters, which, by common consent and general usage, are combined into words, and thus made the ocular representatives of the articulate sounds uttered by the voice.

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GRAMMAR.

GRAMMAR is the science of language.

Grammar may be divided into two species, universal and particular.

UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR explains the principles which are common to all languages.

PARTICULAR GRAMMAR applies those general principles to a particular language, modifying them according to its genius, and the established practice of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used. Hence,

_The established practice of the best speakers and writers_ of any language, is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the use of that language.

By the phrase, _established practice,_ is implied reputable, national, and present usage. A usage becomes _good_ and _legal,_ when it has been long and generally adopted.

_The best speakers and writers,_ or such as may be considered good authority in the use of language, are those who are deservedly in high estimation; speakers, distinguished for their elocution and other literary attainments, and writers, eminent for correct taste, solid matter, and refined manner.

In the grammar of a _perfect_ language, no rules should be admitted, but such as are founded on fixed principles, arising out of the genius of that language and the nature of things; but our language being _im_-perfect, it becomes necessary, in a _practical_ treatise, like this, to adopt some rules to direct us in the use of speech as regulated by _custom_. If we had a permanent and surer standard than capricious custom to regulate us in the transmission of thought, great inconvenience would be avoided. They, however, who introduce usages which depart from the analogy and philosophy of a language, are conspicuous among the number of those who form that language, and have power to control it.

Language is conventional, and not only invented, but, in its progressive advancement, _varied_ for purposes of practical convenience. Hence it assumes any and every form which those who make use of it choose to give it. We are, therefore, as _rational_ and _practical_ grammarians, compelled to submit to the necessity of the case; to take the language as it _is_, and not as it _should be_, and bow to custom.

PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR investigates and develops the principles of language, as founded in the nature of things and the original laws of thought. It also discusses the grounds of the classification of words, and explains those procedures which practical grammar lays down for our observance.

PRACTICAL GRAMMAR adopts the most convenient classification of the words of a language, lays down a system of definitions and rules, founded on scientific principles and good usage, illustrates their nature and design, and enforces their application.

PRINCIPLE. A principle in grammar is a peculiar construction of the language, sanctioned by good usage.

DEFINITION. A definition in grammar is a principle of language expressed in a definite form.

RULE. A rule describes the peculiar construction or circumstantial relation of words, which custom has established for our observance.

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing the English language with propriety.

GRAMMAR teaches us _how to use words in a proper manner._ The most important use of that faculty called speech, is, to convey our thoughts to others. If, therefore, we have a store of words, and even know what they signify, they will be of no real use to us unless we can also apply them to practice, and make them answer the purposes for which they were invented. _Grammar_, well understood, enables us to express our thoughts fully and clearly; and, consequently, in a manner which will defy the ingenuity of man to give our words any other meaning than that which we ourselves intend them to express. To be able to speak and write our vernacular tongue with accuracy and elegance, is, certainly, a consideration of the highest moment.

Grammar is divided into four parts;

1. ORTHOGRAPHY, 2. ETYMOLOGY, 3. SYNTAX, 4. PROSODY.

ORTHOGRAPHY teaches the nature and powers of letters, and the just method of spelling words.

ORTHOGRAPHY means _word-making_, or _spelling_. It teaches us the different kinds and sounds of letters, how to combine them into syllables, and syllables into words.

As this is one of the first steps in the path of literature, I presume you already understand the nature and use of letters, and the just method of spelling words. If you do, it is unnecessary for you to dwell long on this part of grammar, which, though very important, is rather dry and uninteresting, for it has nothing to do with parsing and analyzing language. And, therefore, if you can _spell correctly_, you may omit Orthography, and commence with Etymology and Syntax.

Orthography treats, 1st, of _Letters_, 2ndly, of _Syllables_, and 3dly, of _Words_.

I. LETTERS. A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word.

The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters.

They are divided into vowels and consonants.

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The vowels are _a, e, i, o, u,_ and sometimes _w_ and _y_. _W_ and _y_ are consonants when they begin a word or syllable; but in every other situation they are vowels.

A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without the help of a vowel; as, _b, d, f, l_. All letters except the vowels are consonants.

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels.

The mutes cannot be sounded _at all_ without the aid of a vowel. They are _b, p, t, d, k_, and _c_ and _g_ hard.

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are _f, l, m, n, r, v, s, z, x_, and _c_ and _g_ soft.

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, _l, m, n, r_, are called _liquids_, because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were, into their sounds.

A diphthong is the union of _two_ vowels, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice; as _oi_ in voice, _ou_ in sound.

A triphthong is the union of _three_ vowels pronounced in like manner; as, _eau_ in beau, _iew_ in view.

A _proper_ diphthong has _both_ the vowels sounded; as, _ou_ in ounce. An _improper_ diphthong has only _one_ of the vowels sounded; as, _oa_ in boat.

II. SYLLABLES. A Syllable is a distinct sound, uttered by a single impulse of the voice; as, _a, an, ant_.

A word of one syllable, is termed a Monosyllable; a word of two syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable; a word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable.

III. WORDS. Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas.

Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative.

A _primitive_ word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler word in the language; as, _man, good_.

A _derivative_ word is that which may be reduced to a simpler word; as, _manful, goodness_.

There is little or no difference between derivative and compound words. The terminations or added syllables, such as _ed, es, ess, est, an, ant, en, ence, ent, dom, hood, ly, ous, ful, ness_, and the like, were, originally, distinct and separate words, which, by long use, have been contracted, and made to coalesce with other words.

OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.

A.--_A_ has four sounds; the long; as in _name, basin_; the broad; as in _ball, wall_; the short; as in _fagot, glass_; and the flat, Italian sound; as in _bar, farther_. The improper diphthong, _aa_, has the short sound of a in _Balaam, Canaan, Isaac_; and the long sound of _a_ in _Baal, Gaal, Aaron_.

The Latin diphthong, _ae_, has the long sound of _e_ in _aenigma, Caesar_, and some other words. But many authors reject this useless excrescence of antiquity, and write, _enigma, Cesar_.

The diphthong, _ai_, has the long sound of _a_; as in _pail, sail_; except in _plaid, said, again, raillery, fountain, Britain_, and some others.

_Au_ is sounded like broad _a_ in _taught_, like flat _a_ in _aunt_, like long _o_ in _hautboy_, and like short _o_ in _laurel_.

_Aw_ has always the sound of broad _a_; as in _bawl, crawl_.

_Ay_ has the long sound of _a_; as in _pay, delay_.

B.--_B_ has only one sound; as in _baker, number, chub_.

_B_ is silent when it follows _m_ in the same syllable; as in _lamb_, &c. except in _accumb, rhomb_, and _succumb_. It is also silent before _t_ in the same syllable; as in _doubt, debtor, subtle_, &c.

C.--_C_ sounds like _k_ before _a, o, u, r, l, t_, and at the end of syllables; as in _cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth; victim, flaccid_. It has the sound of _s_ before _e, i_, and _y_; as in _centre, cigar, mercy. C_ has the sound of _sh_ when followed by a diphthong, and is preceded by the accent, either primary or secondary; as in _social, pronunciation_, &c.; and of _z_ in _discern, sacrifice, sice, suffice_. It is mute in _arbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle_.

_Ch_ is commonly sounded like _tsh_; as in _church, chin_; but in words derived from the ancient languages, it has the sound of _k_; as in _chemist, chorus_; and likewise in foreign names; as in _Achish, Enoch_. In words from the French, _ch_ sounds like _sh_; as in _chaise, chevalier_; and also like _sh_ when preceded by _l_ or _n_; as in _milch, bench, clinch_, &c.

_Ch_ in _arch_, before a vowel, sounds like _k_; as in _arch-angel_, except in _arched, archery, archer; archenemy_; but before a consonant, it sounds like _tsh_; as in _archbishop. Ch_ is silent in _schedule, schism, yacht, drachm_.

D.--_D_ has one uniform sound; as in _death, bandage_. It sounds like _dj_ or _j_ when followed by long _u_ preceded by the accent; as in _educate, verdure_. It also sounds like _j_ in _grandeur, soldier_.

The termination, _ed_, in adjectives and participial adjectives, retains its distinct sound; as, a _wick-ed_ man, a _learn-ed_ man, _bless-ed_ are the meek; but in verbs the _e_ is generally dropped; as, _passed, walked, flashed, aimed, rolled_, &c. which are pronounced, _past, walkt, flasht, aimd, rold_.

E.--_E_ has a long sound; as in _scheme, severe_; a short sound; as in _men, tent_; and sometimes the sound of flat _a_; as in _sergeant_; and of short _i_; as in _yes, pretty, England_, and generally in the unaccented terminations, _es, et, en_.

F.--_F_ has one unvaried sound; as in _fancy, muffin_; except in _of_, which, when uncompounded, is pronounced _ov_. A wive's portion, a calve's head, are improper. They should be, _wife's_ portion, _calf's_ head.

G.--_G_ has two sounds. It is hard before _a, o, u, l_, and _r_, and at the end of a word; as in _gay, go, gun, glory; bag, snug_. It is soft before _e, i_, and _y_; as in _genius, ginger, Egypt_. Exceptions; _get, gewgaw, gimlet_, and some others. G is silent before _n_, as in _gnash_.

H.--_H_ has an articulate sound; as in _hat, horse, hull_. It is silent after _r_; as in _rhetoric, rhubarb_.

I.--_I_ has a long sound; as in _fine_; and a short one; as in _fin_. Before _r_ it is often sounded like _u_ short; as in _first, third_; and in other words, like short _e_; as in _birth, virtue_. In some words it has the sound of long _e_; as in _machine, profile_.

J.--_J_ has the sound of soft _g_; except in _hallelujah_, in which it is pronounced like _y_.

K.--_K_ has the sound of _c_ hard, and is used before _e, i_, and _y_, where _c_ would be soft; as _kept, skirt, murky_. It is silent before _n_; as in _knife, knell, knocker_.

L.--_L_ has always a soft liquid sound; as in _love, billow_. It is often silent; as in _half, talk, almond_.

M.--_M_ has always the same sound; as in _murmur, monumental_; except in _comptroller_, which is pronounced _controller_.

N.--_N_ has two sounds; the one pure; as in _man, net, noble_; the other a compound sound; as in _ankle, banquet, distinct_, &c., pronounced _angkl, bangkwet_. _N_ final is silent when preceded by _m_; as in _hymn, autumn_.

O.--_O_ has a long sound; as in _note, over_; and a short one; as in _not, got_. It has the sound of _u_ short; as in _son, attorney, doth, does_; and generally in the terminations, _op, ot, or, on, om, ol, od_, &c.

P.--_P_ has but one uniform sound; as in _pin, slipper_; except in _cupboard, clapboard_, where it has the sound of _b_. It is mute in _psalm, Ptolemy, tempt, empty, corps, raspberry, and receipt_.

_Ph_ has the sound of _f_ in _philosophy, Philip_; and of _v_ in _nephew, Stephen_.

Q.--_Q_ is sounded like _k_, and is always followed by _u_ pronounced like _w_; as in _quadrant, queen, conquest_.

R.--_R_ has a rough sound; as in _Rome, river, rage_; and a smooth one; as in _bard, card, regard_. In the unaccented termination _re_, the _r_ is sounded after the e; as _in fibre, centre_.

S.--_S_ has a flat sound like _z_; as in _besom, nasal_; and, at the beginning of words, a sharp, hissing sound; as in _saint, sister, sample_. It has the sound of _sh_ when preceded by the accent and another s or a liquid, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_; as in _expulsion, censure_. _S_ sounds like _zh_ when preceded by the accent and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_ as in _brasier, usual_. It is mute in _isle, corps, demesne, viscount_.

T.--_T_ is sounded in _take, temper_. _T_ before _u_, when the accent precedes, and generally before _eou_, sounds like _tsh_; as, _nature, virtue, righteous_, are pronounced _natshure, virtshue, richeus_. _Ti_ before a vowel, preceded by the accent, has the sound of _sh_; as in _salvation, negotiation_; except in such words as _tierce, tiara_, &c. and unless an _s_ goes before; as, _question_; and excepting also derivatives from words ending in _ty_; as in _mighty, mightier_.

_Th_, at the beginning, _middle_, and end of words, is sharp; as in _thick, panther, breath_. Exceptions; _then, booth, worthy_, &c.

U.--_U_ has three sounds; a long; as in _mule, cubic_; a short; as in _dull, custard_; and an obtuse sound; as in _full, bushel_. It is pronounced like short _e_ in _bury_; and like short _i_ in _busy, business_.

V.--_V_ has uniformly the sound of flat _f_; as in _vanity, love_.

W.--_W_, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard in _wo, beware_. _W_ is silent before _r_; as in _wry, wrap, wrinkle_; and also in _answer, sword_, &c. Before _h_ it is pronounced as if written after the _h_; as in _why, when, what_;--_hwy, hwen, hwat_. When heard as a vowel, it takes the sound of _u_; as in _draw, crew, now_.

X.--_X_ has a sharp sound, like _ks_, when it ends a syllable with the accent on it; as, _exit, exercise_; or when it precedes an accented syllable which begins with any consonant except _h_; as, _excuse, extent_; but when the following accented syllable begins with a vowel or _h_, it has, generally, a flat sound, like _gz_; as in _exert, exhort_. _X_ has the sound of _Z_ at the beginning of proper names of Greek original; as in _Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes_.

Y.--_Y_, when a consonant, has its proper sound; as in _youth, York, yes, new-year_. When _y_ is employed as a vowel, it has exactly the sound that _i_ would have in the same situation; as in _rhyme, system, party, pyramid_.

Z.--_Z_ has the sound of flat _s_; as in _freeze, brazen_.

RULES FOR SPELLING.

SPELLING is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters.